Time Series Analysis by State Space Methods
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1 Time Series Analysis by State Space Methods Second Edition J. Durbin London School of Economics and Political Science and University College London S. J. Koopman Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
2 Contents Introduction Basic ideas of state space analysis Linear models Non-Gaussian and nonlinear models Prior knowledge Notation Other books on state space methods Website for the book 6 PARTI THE LINEAR STATE SPACE MODEL 2. Local level model Introduction Filtering The Kalman filter Regression lemma Bayesian treatment Minimum variance linear unbiased treatment Illustration Forecast errors Cholesky decomposition Error recursions State smoothing Smoothed state Smoothed state variance Illustration Disturbance smoothing Smoothed observation disturbances Smoothed state disturbances Illustration Cholesky decomposition and smoothing Simulation Illustration Missing observations Illustration 30
3 xiv Contents 2.8 Forecasting Illustration Initialisation Parameter estimation Loglikelihood evaluation Concentration of loglikelihood Illustration Steady state Diagnostic checking Diagnostic tests for forecast errors Detection of outliers and structural breaks Illustration Exercises Linear state space models Introduction Univariate structural time series models Trend component Seasonal component Basic structural time series model Cycle component Explanatory variables and intervention effects STAMP Multivariate structural time series models Homogeneous models Common levels Latent risk model ARMA models and ARIMA models Exponential smoothing Regression models Regression with time-varying coefficients Regression with ARMA errors Dynamic factor models State space models in continuous time Local level model Local linear trend model Spline smoothing Spline smoothing in discrete time Spline smoothing in continuous time Further comments on state space analysis State space versus Box-Jenkins approaches Benchmarking Simultaneous modelling of series from different sources Exercises 74
4 Contents xv 4. Filtering, smoothing and forecasting Introduction Basic results in multivariate regression theory Filtering Derivation of the Kalman filter Kalman filter recursion Kalman filter for models with mean adjustments Steady state State estimation errors and forecast errors State smoothing Introduction Smoothed state vector Smoothed state variance matrix State smoothing recursion Updating smoothed estimates Fixed-point and fixed-lag smoothers Disturbance smoothing Smoothed disturbances Smoothed disturbance variance matrices Disturbance smoothing recursion Other state smoothing algorithms Classical state smoothing Fast state smoothing The Whittle relation between smoothed estimates Two filter formula for smoothing Covariance matrices of smoothed estimators Weight functions Introduction Filtering weights Smoothing weights Simulation smoothing Simulation smoothing by mean corrections Simulation smoothing for the state vector de Jong-Shephard method for simulation of disturbances Missing observations Forecasting Dimensionality of observational vector Matrix formulations of basic results State space model in matrix form Matrix expression for densities Filtering in matrix form: Cholesky decomposition Smoothing in matrix form Matrix expressions for signal Simulation smoothing Exercises 121
5 xvi Contents 5. Initialisation of filter and smoother Introduction The exact initial Kalman filter ' The basic recursions Transition to the usual Kalman filter A convenient representation Exact initial state smoothing Smoothed mean of state vector Smoothed variance of state vector Exact initial disturbance smoothing Exact initial simulation smoothing Modifications for diffuse initial conditions Exact initial simulation smoothing Examples of initial conditions for some models Structural time series models Stationary ARMA models Nonstationary ARIMA models Regression model with ARMA errors Spline smoothing Augmented Kalman filter and smoother Introduction Augmented Kalman filter Filtering based on the augmented Kalman filter Illustration: the local linear trend model Comparisons of computational efficiency Smoothing based on the augmented Kalman filter Further computational aspects Introduction Regression estimation Introduction Inclusion of coefficient vector in state vector Regression estimation by augmentation Least squares and recursive residuals Square root filter and smoother Introduction Square root form of variance updating Givens rotations Square root smoothing Square root filtering and initialisation Illustration: local linear trend model Univariate treatment of multivariate series Introduction Details of univariate treatment 155
6 Contents xvii Correlation between observation equations Computational efficiency Illustration: vector splines Collapsing large observation vectors Introduction Collapse by transformation A generalisation of collapsing by transformation Computational efficiency Filtering and smoothing under linear restrictions Computer packages for state space methods Introduction SsfPack The basic SsfPack functions The extended SsfPack functions 166, Illustration: spline smoothing 167 Maximum likelihood estimation of parameters Introduction Likelihood evaluation Loglikelihood when initial conditions are known Diffuse loglikelihood Diffuse loglikelihood via augmented Kalman filter Likelihood when elements of initial state vector are fixed but unknown Likelihood when a univariate treatment of multivariate series is employed Likelihood when the model contains regression effects Likelihood when large observation vector is collapsed Parameter estimation Introduction Numerical maximisation algorithms The score vector The EM algorithm Estimation when dealing with diffuse initial conditions Large sample distribution of estimates Effect of errors in parameter estimation Goodness of fit Diagnostic checking 188 Illustrations of the use of the linear model Introduction Structural time series models Bivariate structural time series analysis Box-Jenkins analysis Spline smoothing Dynamic factor analysis 202
7 xviii Contents PART II NON-GAUSSIAN AND NONLINEAR STATE SPACE MODELS 9. Special cases of nonlinear and non-gaussian models Introduction Models with a linear Gaussian signal Exponential family models Poisson density Binary density Binomial density Negative binomial density Multinomial density Multivariate extensions Heavy-tailed distributions t-distribution Mixture of normals General error distribution Stochastic volatility models Multiple volatility factors Regression and fixed effects Heavy-tailed disturbances Additive noise Leverage effects Stochastic volatility in mean Multivariate SV models Generalised autoregressive conditional heteroscedasticity Other financial models Durations: exponential distribution Trade frequencies: Poisson distribution Credit risk models Nonlinear models Approximate filtering and smoothing Introduction The extended Kalman filter A multiplicative trend-cycle decomposition Power growth model The unscented Kalman filter The unscented transformation Derivation of the unscented Kalman filter Further developments of the unscented transform Comparisons between EKF and UKF Nonlinear smoothing Extended smoothing Unscented smoothing 237
8 Contents xix 10.5 Approximation via data transformation Partly multiplicative decompositions Stochastic volatility model Approximation via mode estimation _ Mode estimation for the linear Gaussian model Mode estimation for model with linear Gaussian signal Mode estimation by linearisation Mode estimation for exponential family models Mode estimation for stochastic volatility model Further advances in mode estimation Linearisation based on the state vector Linearisation for linear state equations Linearisation for nonlinear models Linearisation for multiplicative models An optimal property for the mode Treatments for heavy-tailed distributions Mode estimation for models with heavy-tailed densities Mode estimation for state errors with ^-distribution A simulation treatment for ^-distribution model A simulation treatment for mixture of normals model Importance sampling for smoothing Introduction Basic ideas of importance sampling Choice of an importance density Implementation details of importance sampling Introduction Practical implementation of importance sampling Antithetic variables Diffuse initialisation Estimating functions of the state vector Estimating mean functions Estimating variance functions Estimating conditional densities Estimating conditional distribution functions Forecasting and estimating with missing observations Estimating loglikelihood and parameters Estimation of likelihood Maximisation of loglikelihood Variance matrix of maximum likelihood estimate Effect of errors in parameter estimation Mean square error matrix due to simulation Importance sampling weights and diagnostics 275
9 xx Contents 12. Particle filtering Introduction Filtering by importance sampling Sequential importance sampling Introduction Recursions for particle filtering Degeneracy and resampling Algorithm for sequential importance sampling The bootstrap particle filter Introduction The bootstrap filter Algorithm for bootstrap filter Illustration: local level model for Nile data The auxiliary particle filter Algorithm for auxiliary filter Illustration: local level model for Nile data Other implementations of particle filtering Importance density from extended or unscented filter The local regression filter The mode equalisation filter Rao-Blackwellisation Introduction The Rao-Blackwellisation technique Bayesian estimation of parameters Introduction Posterior analysis for linear Gaussian model Posterior analysis based on importance sampling Non-informative priors Posterior analysis for a nonlinear non-gaussian model Posterior analysis of functions of the state vector Computational aspects of Bayesian analysis Posterior analysis of parameter vector Markov chain Monte Carlo methods Non-Gaussian and nonlinear illustrations Introduction Nonlinear decomposition: UK visits abroad Poisson density: van drivers killed in Great Britain Heavy-tailed density: outlier in gas consumption 317
10 Contents xxi 14.5 Volatility: pound/dollar daily exchange rates Data transformation analysis Estimation via importance sampling Particle filtering illustration Binary density: Oxford-Cambridge boat race 324 References 326 Author Index 340 Subject Index 343
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