This presentation focuses on 2D tactile roughness measurements. Three key points of the presentation are: 1. Profiles are simply a collection of

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2 This presentation focuses on 2D tactile roughness measurements. Three key points of the presentation are: 1. Profiles are simply a collection of relative heights. 2. Parameters are statistics, not dimensions. 3. Filters are not intended to eliminate features of the surface, they separate the measured profile into it s wavelength components. 2

3 Many roughness measuring instruments purchased in North America are entry level instruments for the purpose of complying to customer drawings. Functional surface examples are: cylinder bores, sealing surfaces, surfaces carrying loads (bearings), and surfaces to be coated. Surface roughness measurements can offer early indication of tool wear or machine wear. 3

4 These are examples of profiles that come from extreme scales. The top profile is the elevation profile of a bicycle route and the bottom is a roughness measurement on a surface with rust. Both are a collection of relative heights. 4

5 More profile examples: a roundness profile is similar and is a collection of relative deviations in radius. Many profiles include shape allowing for roughness measurements as well as deviation from intended shape. Areal profiles are also collections of relative heights with an added axis. 5

6 2D Profiles are broken down into three parts. The P Profile is the as measured, or unfiltered, profile. It contains roughness, waviness, and form. The W Profile is the waviness profile and it is the longer wavelength features from the P Profile. And the R Profile is the roughness profile which is the P Profile with the waviness profile removed. 6

7 Key Terminology: Traverse (or tracing) length is the actual travel distance of the stylus. Evaluation length is the length over which parameters are calculated. It is shorter than the traverse length because of pre and post travel. The pre and post travel (1/2 cut off for Gaussian filter) is needed for the filter algorithm). The cut off length is the filter cut off. It s value determines which wavelength value separates waviness from roughness. Also, it is used for calculating some parameters such as Rz. By default, most evaluation lengths are made up of 5 cut offs though this is not a rule. Other quantities (both more and less) are allowed by standards. 7

8 Most entry level instruments are skidded. The skid has a very large radius and traverses with the stylus. It slides along the surface and creates the datum to which relative heights are measured. It mechanically filters waviness and form, therefore, skidded instruments can measure roughness on flat surfaces only. They can not measure waviness because most of the waviness is mechanically filtered by the skid. Their advantages are: low cost, lower noise, portable. Disadvantages: No waviness, flat surfaces only, portables are low resolution, most do not have graphical picture of profile parameter results only, not considered in ISO standards. 8

9 Skidless instruments have a physical straightness datum in the tracing driver. The detector carriage rides on the datum and the relative heights are measured in relation to the physical datum. Skidless instruments are the default in ISO standards. They can realize waviness and form. Most skidded instruments are higher resolution but are more sensitive to vibration. Most have graphical displays or PC software with more analysis tools and profile displays. 9

10 Again, the drive unit contains a physical straightness datum that creates the reference to which heights are measured. The detector (probe) is typically a LVDT transducer that produces an analog electrical signal. This signal is passed through an analog to digital converter where the electrical signal changes are converted to digital values relating to height. The stylus is the actual contact with the surface and is attached to the detector. The stylus is a diamond cone (60 or 90 included angle) with 2, 5, or 10µm radius (2µm is the default). 10

11 The two graphics are the drawing specification standards for ISO (left) and ASME (right). The ASME is old and has not been updated for many years. The current ASME B46.1 standard refers to ISO because the ASME version (ANSI Y14.36) does not provide adequate information about the measurement conditions. At a minimum, the parameter, tolerance value, and cut off value need to be on the drawing. It is not the responsibility of the metrologist to decide the necessary cut off value this is related to design and, therefore, the responsibility of the designer to determine. 11

12 Please be aware of the aspect ration of graphical representations of surface measurements. The vertical scale is much greater than the horizontal so that relative height changes can be visualized. In the example above, the top graph is scaled for viewing and the valleys look much deeper than they are wide. The bottom graph shows one of the valleys in 1:1 scale which reveals that the valley is much wider than it is deep. 12

13 13

14 This is only a subset of all the available parameters. These are the most common. Each of the major national and international standards have their own set of parameters. 14

15 Amplitude (or single height) parameters are peak to valley parameters and the simplest form of statistics. Be careful, however, because Rp (and Rv) is different depending on which standard you are using. In ASME, Rp is the highest peak within the evaluation length. In ISO, it is the average of the highest peak from each cut off length or the same as the old parameter, Rpm. Rt is the peak to valley height for the evaluation length (Rp + Rv in ASME). 15

16 Rz is another parameter that is different depending on the standard. In ASME and ISO, it is the average of each peak to valley height from each cut off. This is also often referred to as RzDIN. In the JIS and old ISO (pre 1997) is the average of the 5 highest peak tovalley heights from each cut off. It also has a threshold that says that a peak or valley must be at least 10% of Rt to be considered a peak. Therefore, sometimes, the parameter result will be an error or, in some software, it will calculate but there will be an * indicating it was calculated but did not meet the threshold requirement. This often occurs when there is a large single peak or valley that skews the Rt and makes the 10% value larger than most of the peaks and valleys on the surface. 16

17 Ra is the most common parameter used in North America. It is not very sensitive and often does not tell much about the surface texture. Rq is the equivalent of the old parameter, RMS. It is also not very sensitive. 17

18 In this example, three profiles with similar Ra values but very different shape. Each one would act differently in application. Ra can not tell us about the difference. 18

19 Rsm is the average distance between mean line crossings and is an indicator of the predominate wavelength in the surface. It can be related to feed rate of the machine tool. RΔq is the average slope of the peaks. It can be related to how light will reflect from the surface and is often used for surfaces that will be coated or painted. Or surfaces that need to look a certain way (matte or shiny). 19

20 Some parameters are calculated from the Bearing Area Curve (BAC). This curve comes from the profile where a line parallel to the mean line is indexed from the highest peak to the lowest valley. At each depth in the profile, the % of material in contact with the line is graphed crating the bearing area curve. The shape of this curve changes depending on the distribution of peaks and valleys. For some surface (load carrying for example) it is important to have a flat region of the BAC indicating good region of surface for carrying loads. 20

21 Here are some of the more common parameters calculated from the BAC. For Rmr, a cut value (c) is always given with the parameter call out. This value represents the depth of the line on the bearing area curve where the % bearing area must be within the tolerance given. 21

22 22

23 Before filters can be applied, the definition of roughness for the given surface must be determined. Roughness and waviness magnitude is different depending on the intended use of the surface. Once the function is related to the size of the features of a surface, the cut off can be determined to isolate roughness, waviness, and form features on the surface. 23

24 24

25 Because this table is found in standards, it is often considered to be the standard. It is not it is simply a guideline for the metrologist in those cases where the designer did not specify the cut off value needed. 25

26 This illustration shows the importance of choosing the correct cut off. The roughness profile can change significantly with different cut off values. Shortening the cut off value to get a better Ra result or to shorten the trace length is the wrong approach. To shorten trace length, reduce the number of cut offs to avoid filtering surface features that may be important to the function of the surface. 26

27 The list on the right is a list of the common methods used for applying the cut off value or separating roughness from waviness. 27

28 The 2RC filter came from the old analog days when there was an electrical circuit used to filter the detector signal. It had many problems, one of which was phase error. When computers were applied, the phase error could be mathematically corrected giving birth to the Phase Corrected 2RC (2RC PC). 28

29 Another problem with 2RC filters and also, to a lesser extent, Gaussian filters is Gibbs Overshoot. Here can be seen false peaks in the roughness profile that are a result of the filter algorithm. This is also the reason for pre/post travel being added to the evaluation length. This same issue occurs at the beginning and end of a trace if there is no extra data points for the filter to use. The pre/post travel provides the extra data points for the filter. 29

30 New robust filters are now available per ISO Above is an example of applying the Robust Spline filter. It is robust to edges and anomalies and does not have overshoot. No pre/post travel is necessary when using a robust spline filter. 30

31 Morphological filters can be physical filters (the stylus tip) or mathematical representations of shapes. In the example here, a ball is mathematically applied to the measured profile. The resulting profile is a filtered profile that represents the path of the center of a ball of given size as it is passed over the profile. 31

32 32

33 Again, the key points of the presentation are: 1. Profiles are simply a collection of relative heights. 2. Parameters are statistics, not dimensions. 3. Filters are not intended to eliminate features of the surface, they separate the measured profile into it s wavelength components 33

34 34

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