11/14/2010 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 1

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1 Lecture 8 Artificial neural networks: Unsupervised learning Introduction Hebbian learning Generalised Hebbian learning algorithm Competitive learning Self-organising computational map: Kohonen network Summary 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 1

2 Introduction The main property of a neural network is an ability to learn from its environment, and to improve its performance through learning. So far we have considered supervised or active learning learning with an external teacher or a supervisor who presents a training set to the network. But another type of learning also exists: unsupervised learning. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 2

3 In contrast to supervised learning, unsupervised or self-organised learning does not require an external teacher. During the training session, the neural network receives a number of different input patterns, discovers significant features in these patterns and learns how to classify input data into appropriate categories. Unsupervised learning tends to follow the neuro-biological organisation of the brain. Unsupervised learning algorithms aim to learn rapidly and can be used in real-time. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 3

4 Hebbian learning In 1949, Donald Hebb proposed one of the key ideas in biological learning, commonly known as Hebb s Law.. Hebb s Law states that if neuron i is near enough to excite neuron j and repeatedly participates in its activation, the synaptic connection between these two neurons is strengthened and neuron j becomes more sensitive to stimuli from neuron i. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 4

5 Hebb s Law can be represented in the form of two rules: 1. If two neurons on either side of a connection are activated synchronously, then the weight of that connection is increased. 2. If two neurons on either side of a connection are activated asynchronously, y then the weight of that connection is decreased. Hebb s Law provides the basis for learning without a teacher. Learning here is a local phenomenon occurring without feedback from the environment. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 5

6 Hebbian learning in a neural network I n p u t S i g n a l s i j u t S i g n a l s O u t p 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 6

7 Using Hebb s Law we can express the adjustment applied to the weight w ij at iteration p in the following form: w ij [ y ( p ), x ( )] ( p ) F p j As a special case, we can represent Hebb s Law as follows: w ( p ) a y ( p ) x ( p ) ij j i where is the learning rate parameter. This equation is referred to as the activity product rule. i 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 7

8 Hebbian learning implies that weights can only increase. To resolve this problem, we might impose a limit on the growth of synaptic weights. It can be done by introducing a non-linear forgetting factor into Hebb s Law: w w ij ( p ) y ( p ) x ( p ) y ( p ) w ( p ) j i where is the forgetting g factor. Forgetting factor usually falls in the interval between and 1, typically between.1 1 and.1, to allow only a little forgetting while limiting the weight growth. j ij 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 8

9 Hebbian learning algorithm Step 1: Initialisation. Set initial synaptic weights and thresholds to small random values, say in an interval [, 1 ]. Step 2: Activation. Compute the neuron output at iteration p y j ( p) n x ( p) w ( p) i1 i ij where n is the number of neuron inputs, and j is the threshold value of neuron j. j 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 9

10 Step 3: Learning. Update the weights in the network: w ij ( p1) w ( p) w ( p) ij ij where w ij (p) is the weight correction at iteration p. The weight correction is determined d by the generalised activity product rule: w ij ( p) y ( p) x ( p) w ( p j [ )] Step 4: Iteration. Increase iteration p by one, go back to Step 2. i ij 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 1

11 Hebbian learning example To illustrate Hebbian learning, consider a fully connected feedforward network with a single layer of five computation neurons. Each neuron is represented by a McCulloch and Pitts model with the sign activation function. The network is trained on the following set of input vectors: X 1 X X 3 1 X 4 1 X /14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 11

12 Initial and final states of the network 1 1 x y 1 1 x 1 1 y 1 x y 2 1 x 2 2 y 2 x y 3 x 3 3 y 3 x y 4 x 4 4 y x y 5 Input layer Output layer 1 1 x 5 5 y 5 Input layer Output layer 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 12

13 Initial and final weight matrices Output layer Output layer /14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 13

14 A test input vector, or probe, is defined as A test input vector, or probe, is defined as 1 1 X 1 X When this probe is presented to the network, we When this probe is presented to the network, we obtain: obtain: sign Y 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing

15 Competitive learning In competitive learning, neurons compete among themselves to be activated. While in Hebbian learning, several output neurons can be activated t simultaneously, l in competitive learning, only a single output neuron is active at any time. The output neuron that wins the competition is called the winner-takes-all all neuron. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 15

16 The basic idea of competitive learning was introduced in the early 197s. In the late 198s, Teuvo Kohonen introduced a special class of artificial neural networks called self-organizing feature maps.. These maps are based on competitive learning. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 16

17 What is a self-organizing feature map? Our brain is dominated by the cerebral cortex, a very complex structure of billions of neurons and hundreds of billions of synapses. The cortex includes areas that are responsible for different human activities (motor, visual, auditory, somatosensory, etc.), and associated with different sensory inputs. We can say that each sensory input is mapped into a corresponding area of the cerebral cortex. The cortex is a self-organizing ii computational map in the human brain. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 17

18 Feature-mapping Kohonen model Kohonen layer Kohonen layer Input layer Input layer 1 1 (a) (b) 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 18

19 The Kohonen network The Kohonen model provides a topological mapping. It places a fixed number of input patterns from the input layer into a higher- dimensional output or Kohonen layer. Training in the Kohonen network begins with the winner s neighborhood h of a fairly large size. Then, as training proceeds, the neighborhood size gradually decreases. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 19

20 Architecture of the Kohonen Network y 1 x 1 x 2 y 2 y 3 Input layer Output layer 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 2

21 The lateral connections are used to create a competition between neurons. The neuron with the largest activation level among all neurons in the output layer becomes the winner. This neuron is the only neuron that produces an output signal. The activity of all other neurons is suppressed in the competition. The lateral feedback connections produce excitatory or inhibitory effects, depending on the distance from the winning neuron. This is achieved by the use of a Mexican hat function which describes synaptic weights between neurons in the Kohonen layer. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 21

22 The Mexican hat function of lateral connection Excitatory effect Connection 1 strength Inhibitory effect Distance Inhibitory effect 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 22

23 In the Kohonen network, a neuron learns by shifting its weights from inactive connections to active ones. Only the winning neuron and its neighbourhood are allowed to learn. If a neuron does not respond to a given input pattern, then learning cannot occur in that particular neuron. The competitive learning rule defines the change w ij applied to synaptic weight w ij as w ij ( x i w ij ), if neuron, if neuron j j wins loses the the competition competition where x i is the input signal and is the learning rate parameter. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 23

24 The overall effect of the competitive learning rule resides in moving the synaptic weight vector W j of the winning neuron j towards the input pattern X. The matching criterion is equivalent to the minimum Euclidean distance between vectors. The Euclidean distance between a pair of n-by by-1 vectors X and W j is defined by d n 2 X W j ( xi wij ) i1 1/ 2 where x i and w ij are the ith elements of the vectors X and W j, respectively. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 24

25 To identify the winning i neuron, j X, that t best matches the input vector X,, we may apply the following condition: j X min X W, j = 1, 2,...,mm j j where m is the number of neurons in the Kohonen layer. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 25

26 Suppose, for instance, that the 2-dimensional input vector X is presented to the three-neuron Kohonen network, X The initial weight vectors, W j, are given by W.43 W 1 W /14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 26

27 We find the winning (best-matching) neuron j X using the minimum-distance Euclidean criterion: d d d ( x1 w11) ( x2 w21) (.52.27) (.12.81) ( x1 w12) ( x2 w22) (.52.42) (.12.7) ( x1 w13) ( x2 w23) (.52.43) (.12.21). 13 Neuron 3 is the winner and its weight vector W3 is updated according to the competitive learning rule. w 13 1 ( x w13 ).1(.52.43) w 23 ( x 2 w 23 ).1(.12.21).1 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 27

28 The updated weight vector W 3 at iteration (p + 1) is determined as: W ( p 1) W3( p) W3( 3 p ) The weight vector W 3 of the wining neuron 3 becomes closer to the input vector X with each iteration. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 28

29 Competitive Learning Algorithm Step 1: Initialization. Set initial synaptic weights to small random values, say in an interval [, 1], and assign a small positive value to the learning rate parameter. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 29

30 Step 2: Activation and Similarity Matching. Ati Activate t the Kohonen Kh network kb by applying li the input vector X,, and find the winner-takes-all all (best matching) neuron j X at iteration p,, using the minimum-distance Euclidean criterion j X ( p) min j j = 1, 2,...,m X W j ( p) n [ ( )] 2 xi wij p i 11 1/ 2 where n is the number of neurons in the input layer, and m is the number of neurons in the Kohonen layer., 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 3

31 Step 3: Learning. Ud Update the synaptic weights ih w ij ( p 1) w ( p) w ( p) ij ij where w ij (p) is the weight correction at iteration p. The weight correction is determined by the competitive learning rule: w ij [ x ( ) ] i wij p, j j ( p ) ( p), j j ( p) where is the learning rate parameter, and j (p) is the neighborhood function centered around the winner-takes-all all neuron j X at iteration p. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 31

32 Step 4: Iteration. Increase iteration p by one, go back to Step 2 and continue until the minimum-distance Euclidean criterion is satisfied, or no noticeable changes occur in the feature map. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 32

33 Competitive learning in the Kohonen network To illustrate competitive learning, consider the Kohonen network with 1 neurons arranged in the form of a two-dimensional lattice with 1 rows and 1 columns. The network is required to classify two-dimensional input vectors - each neuron in the network should respond only to the input vectors occurring in its region. The network is trained with 1 two-dimensional input vectors generated randomly in a square region in the interval between 1 and +1. The learning rate parameter a is equal to.1. 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 33

34 Initial random weights W(2,j) W(1,j) 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 34

35 Network after 1 iterations W(2,j) W(1,j) 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 35

36 Network after 1 iterations W(2,j) W(1,j) 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 36

37 W(2,j) Network after 1, iterations W(1,j) 1 11/14/21 Intelligent Systems and Soft Computing 37