QUIZ on Ch.5. Why is it sometimes not a good idea to place the private part of the interface in a header file?

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1 QUIZ on Ch.5 Why is it sometimes not a good idea to place the private part of the interface in a header file?

2 Example projects where we don t want the implementation visible to the client programmer: The library header file may show proprietary info. that the company doesn t want available to competitors. Security (e.g. an encryption algorithm) don t want to expose any clues in a header file that might help people crack the code. Library is used in a hostile environment, where the programmers will try to directly access the private components anyway, using pointers and casting.

3 QUIZ Why can a.cpp file be made more secure than a header file?

4 solution Why can a.cpp file be made more secure than a header file? Because it can be provided in the library in an already-compiled form, so the client programmers don t have access to the source code.

5 QUIZ What is a handle class?

6 QUIZ What is a handle class? A class that is accessed only through an opaque pointer; the class interface and definition are not available to the client programmer.

7 QUIZ How is a handle class implemented in C++?

8 QUIZ How is a handle class implemented in C++? With a forward declaration and a pointer:

9 Ch. 6: Initialization & Cleanup

10 Main ideas from chs. 4 and 5 4: Encapsulation (functions inside struct/class) 5: Access control (hiding private class members and forcing the user to access them through public members)

11 Two more safety issues: text A large segment of C bugs occur when the programmer forgets to initialize or clean up a variable. This is especially true with C libraries, when client programmers don t know how to initialize a struct, or even that they must initialize it. (Libraries often do not include an initialization function, so the client programmer is forced to initialize the struct by hand.)

12 Two more safety issues: C programmers are comfortable with forgetting about variables once they are finished, so any cleaning up that may be necessary for a library s struct is often missed. E.g.: What if we allocated memory dynamically for a large array? Memory leaks!

13 Guaranteed initialization with the constructor text Both the Stash and Stack classes defined previously have a function called initialize( ), which hints by its name that it should be called before using the object in any other way. Unfortunately, this means the client programmer must ensure proper initialization by calling it.

14 Guaranteed initialization with the constructor text In C++, initialization is too important to leave to the client programmer. The class designer can guarantee initialization of every object by providing a special function called the constructor. If a class has a constructor, the compiler automatically calls that constructor at the point an object is created, before client programmers can get their hands on the object.

15 Note that the constructor is in the public section of the interface! The constructor is a function, but it doesn t have a return type, not even void. Name of constructor is the same as name of class.

16 What happens if we make the constructor private?

17 It would still be possible to create objects of this class, but we d have to use other member functions in Test, or friend functions. Conclusion: The constructor should be public (unless we have a good reason to the contrary).

18 Like any member function, the first (secret) argument to the constructor is the this pointer the address of the object for which it is being called. In the case of the constructor, however, this is pointing to an un-initialized block of memory, and it s the job of the constructor to initialize this memory properly.

19 QUIZ

20 Solution Like any member function, it can also be declared and defined separately

21 Solution

22 A constructor without arguments is called a default constructor. When an object is instantiated with the default constructor, the name of the object (e.g. a) is provided without anything else, not even empty parentheses!

23 Non-default constructor

24 QUIZ 3. Modify Exercise 1 so that the class contains an int member. Modify the constructor so that it takes an int argument that it stores in the class member. The constructor should print out the int value as part of its message, so you can see the objects as they are created. Create 2 objects of this class, with different arguments passed to the constructor.

25 Solution

26 How are constructors different from regular member functions? They have the same name as the class They have no return type They are called automatically when objects are declared

27 Guaranteed cleanup with the destructor No return type No arguments! Tilde Same name as the class

28 The destructor is called automatically by the compiler when the object goes out of scope. You can see where the constructor gets called by the point of definition of the object, but the only evidence for a destructor call is the closing brace of the scope that surrounds the object.

29 ~Tree() is called here

30 QUIZ

31 Solution

32 Solution

33 QUIZ What (if anything) is wrong with this code?

34 Solution What (if anything) is wrong with this code? It s illegal to access private members of objects! Constructors should be public! Constructors don t take a return type! If the constructor has arguments, the object s definition must specify the same number and types of arguments!

35 QUIZ How are constructors different from regular member functions?

36 Solution How are constructors different from regular member functions? They have the same name as the class They have no return type They are called automatically when objects are declared

37 QUIZ How are constructors and destructors: Similar? Different?

38 How about structs, unions? C++ structs and unions can have both constructors and destructors!

39 Destructor nitty-gritty [ ] the destructor is still called, even when you use goto to jump out of a scope. You should note that a nonlocal goto, implemented by the Standard C library functions setjmp( ) and longjmp( ), doesn t cause destructors to be called. For more details see

40 Not in text Destructor nitty-gritty If the object was created dynamically, the destructor is called when the memory is deleted.

41 To do for next time: Read carefully all the text explanations Redo all quizzes EOL 1

42 Elimination of the definition block text In C, you must always define all the variables at the beginning of a block, after the opening brace. [ ] it s good programming style. However: It has always seemed inconvenient to me to pop back to the beginning of a block every time I need a new variable. I find code more readable when the variable definition is close to its point of use.

43 Elimination of the definition block text In C++, however, there s a significant problem in being forced to define all objects at the beginning of a scope: If a constructor exists, it must be called when the object is created. However, if the constructor takes one or more initialization arguments, how do you know you will have that initialization information at the beginning of a scope?

44

45 Doesn t matter whether we use braces or not the scope is always the entire loop, header+body. (Of course, w/o braces, the body of the loop is only one command.)

46 QUIZ What will this code print?

47 Solution: The scope of s is the body of the for loop (just the current iteration)

48 QUIZ What will the code print now?

49 Solution: The scope of t is the entire for loop (header and body, all iterations, until it exits) Constructing t Destructing t

50 text I find small scopes an indicator of good design. If you have several pages for a single function, perhaps you re trying to do too much with that function. More granular functions are not only more useful, but they also make it easier to find bugs.

51 text To make sure all objects are properly initialized, the compiler even checks to make sure that you don t put the object definition (and thus the constructor call) where the sequence point only conditionally passes through it, such as in a switch statement or somewhere a goto can jump past it.

52

53 Stash with constructors and destructors Definitions on next slide

54

55 Read and understand: Stack with constructors & destructors

56 Aggregate initialization An aggregate is just what it sounds like: a bunch of things clumped together. This definition includes aggregates of mixed types, like structs and classes. An array is an aggregate of a single type. Initializing aggregates can be error-prone and tedious. C++ aggregate initialization makes it much safer.

57 All these cases are identical in C and C++: This is how we can find the array size at run-time.

58 All these cases are identical in C and C++: Remember from C that any uninitialized array elements at the end of an initializer list are automatically initialized with zero.?

59 If any of the data members are private (which is typically the case for a well-designed class in C++), or even if everything s public but there s a constructor, things are different:

60 An example with constructors having multiple arguments:

61 Default constructors Compilation error! Compilation error!

62

63 text You might think that the compiler-synthesized constructor should do some intelligent initialization, like setting all the memory for the object to zero. But it doesn t that would add extra overhead [ ] If you want the memory to be initialized to zero, you must do it yourself by writing the default constructor explicitly. Another reason for lazy default constructors is that, in many cases, it is not clear what the default value should be for an object! E.g. How should be dates initialized?

64 Although the compiler will create a default constructor for you, the behavior of the compilersynthesized constructor is rarely what you want. text You should treat this feature as a safety net, but use it sparingly. In general, you should define your constructors explicitly and not allow the compiler to do it for you.

65 QUIZ Only one of these programs compiles successfully which one and why?

66 Solution This code fails if a constructor exists, the compiler will not create a default one!

67 QUIZ How can we fix the program?

68 Solution Write a default constructor! It s OK to have multiple constructors remember function overloading!! We can use it in other declarations, e.g. Bar foo(42), baz(-42); But what is the use of the non-default constructor now?

69 Individual work to do for next time: End-of-chapter exercises 4, 5, 7. There is no homework for Ch. 6 assigned today - one homework will be assigned for Chs.6 and 7 together. EOL 2

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