CS241 Computer Organization Spring Data Alignment
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1 CS241 Computer Organization Spring 2015 Data Alignment
2 Outline! Data Alignment! C: pointers to functions! Memory Layout Read: CS:APP2 Chapter 3, sections Quiz next Thursday, April 2nd on assembly (HW4 & HW5) HW#5 due: Tuesday, March 24th Lab#2 Bomblab due: next week HW#6 due: Tuesday, April 7th
3 Alignment Aligned Data Primitive data type requires K bytes Address must be multiple of K Required on some machines; advised on IA32 treated differently by IA32 Linux, x86-64 Linux, and Windows! Motivation for Aligning Data Memory accessed by (aligned) chunks of 4 or 8 bytes (system dependent) Inefficient to load or store datum that spans quad word boundaries Virtual memory very tricky when datum spans 2 pages Compiler Inserts gaps in structure to ensure correct alignment of fields
4 Specific Cases of Alignment (IA32) 1 byte: char, no restrictions on address 2 bytes: short, lowest 1 bit of address must be bytes: int, float, char *, lowest 2 bits of address must be bytes: double, Windows (and most other OS s & instruction sets): lowest 3 bits of address must be Linux: lowest 2 bits of address must be 00 2 i.e., treated the same as a 4-byte primitive data type 12 bytes: long double Windows, Linux: lowest 2 bits of address must be 00 2 i.e., treated the same as a 4-byte primitive data type
5 Specific Cases of Alignment (x86-64) 1 byte: char, no restrictions on address 2 bytes: short, lowest 1 bit of address must be bytes: int, float, lowest 2 bits of address must be bytes: double, char *, Windows & Linux: lowest 3 bits of address must be bytes: long double Linux: lowest 3 bits of address must be i.e., treated the same as a 8-byte primitive data type
6 Satisfying Alignment with Structures Within structure: Must satisfy element s alignment requirement Overall structure placement Each structure has alignment requirement K K = Largest alignment of any element Initial address & structure length must be multiples of K Example (under Windows or x86-64): K = 8, due to double element struct S1 { char c; int i[2]; double v; } *p; c 3 bytes i[0] i[1] 4 bytes v p+0 p+4 p+8 p+16 p+24 Multiple of 4 Multiple of 8 Multiple of 8 Multiple of 8
7 Different Alignment Conventions x86-64 or IA32 Windows: K = 8, due to double element struct S1 { char c; int i[2]; double v; } *p; c 3 bytes i[0] i[1] 4 bytes v p+0 p+4 p+8 p+16 p+24 IA32 Linux K = 4; double treated like a 4-byte data type c 3 bytes i[0] i[1] v p+0 p+4 p+8 p+12 p+20
8 Saving Space Put large data types first struct S1 { char c; int i[2]; double v; } *p; struct S2 { double v; int i[2]; char c; } *p; Effect (example x86-64, both have K=8) c 3 bytes i[0] i[1] 4 bytes v p+0 p+4 p+8 p+16 p+24 v i[0] i[1] c p+0 p+8 p+16
9 Arrays of Structures Satisfy alignment requirement for every element struct S2 { double v; int i[2]; char c; } a[10]; a+0 a[0] a[1] a[2] a+24 a+48 a+36 v i[0] i[1] c 7 bytes a+24 a+32 a+40 a+48
10 Accessing Array Elements Compute array offset 12i Compute offset 8 with structure Assembler gives offset a+8 Resolved during linking struct S3 { short i; float v; short j; } a[10]; a[0] a+0 a[i] a+12i i 2 bytes v j 2 bytes a+12i a+12i+8 short get_j(int idx) { return a[idx].j; } # %eax = idx leal (%eax,%eax,2),%eax # 3*idx movswl a+8(,%eax,4),%eax
11 ANSI C: pointers to functions Consider the following function: int f1(int a, float b); So, f1 is a function with two arguments, a and b, which returns an int. You call the function f1 by providing values for the two arguments, e.g. int result = f1( 5, 1.5 ); Note that the name of the function, f1, is actually a memory address of where the code is stored.
12 ANSI C: pointers to functions It can be convenient to have a pointer to a function. int f1(int a, float b); int f2(int a, float b); /* pf is a pointer to a function which has two args and returns an int */ int (*pf)(int a, float b); int result; pf = f2; /* pf now points to the function f2 result = (*pf)( 5, 1.5 ); /* calls f2 on args 5 & 1.5 */ result = pf(5, 1.5 ); /* also works */
13 *** Caution *** Parentheses matter!!! /* in the following, pf is a pointer to a function which has two args and returns an int */ int (*pf)(int a, float b); /* in the following, pf is a function which has two args and returns a pointer to an int */ int *pf(int a, float b);
14 ANSI C: pointers to functions A useful application is to have an array of pointers to functions. int add(int a, int b); int sub(int a, int b); int mul(int a, int b); int div(int a, int b); int (*p[4]) (int x, int y) = { add, sub, mul, div }; int main(void) { int result, i, j, op; scanf( %d %d %d, &op, &i, &j); result = p[op](i,j); printf( result is %d\n, result); }
15 Uses of pointers to functions! Have an array of functions that handle special situations used in Operating Systems to call interrupt handlers! Pass a pointer to a function as an argument can be used to create generic functions (cf. K&R, 5.11, quicksort)
16 IA32 Linux Memory Layout Stack Runtime stack (8MB limit) Heap Dynamically allocated storage When call malloc(), calloc(), new() Data Statically allocated data E.g., arrays & strings declared in code Text Executable machine instructions Read-only FF not drawn to scale Stack 8MB Upper 2 hex digits = 8 bits of address Heap Data Text
17 Memory Allocation Example char big_array[1<<24]; /* 16 MB */ char huge_array[1<<28]; /* 256 MB */ int beyond; char *p1, *p2, *p3, *p4; int useless() { return 0; } int main() { p1 = malloc(1 <<28); /* 256 MB */ p2 = malloc(1 << 8); /* 256 B */ p3 = malloc(1 <<28); /* 256 MB */ p4 = malloc(1 << 8); /* 256 B */ /* Some print statements... */ } Where does everything go? FF not drawn to scale Stack Heap Data Text
18 IA32 Example Addresses address range ~2 32 FF not drawn to scale Stack $esp p3 p1 p4 p2 &p2 beyond big_array huge_array main() useless() final malloc() 0xffffbcd0 0x x x1904a110 0x1904a008 0x x x x x080483c6 0x x006be Heap malloc() is dynamically linked address determined at runtime Data Text
19 Turning C into Object Code: Linker Code in files p1.c p2.c Compile with command: gcc O2 p1.c p2.c -o p Use optimizations (-O2) Put resulting binary in file p text C program (p1.c p2.c) Compiler (gcc -S) text Asm program (p1.s p2.s) Assembler (gcc or as) binar y binar y Object program (p1.o p2.o) Executable program (p) Linker (gcc or ld) Static libraries (.a)
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