Prolog Programming. Chapter 2. Syntax and Meaning of Prolog Programs 1/16/2010
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1 Prolog Programming Chapter 2 Syntax and Meaning of Prolog Programs 1/16/2010 1
2 Chapter 2 Syntax and Meaning of Prolog Programs Data Objects Matching Declarative meaning of Prolog programs Procedural meaning Example : monkey and banana Order of clauses and goals The relation between Prolog and logic 2
3 2.1 Data objects Atoms and Variables can be strings of the following: upper-case letters A,B,,Z lower-case letters a,b,,z digit 0,1,,9 special characters such as + - * / < > = :. & _ ~ 3
4 Data Objects in Prolog 4
5 Atoms Atoms can be constructed in three ways: String of letters, digits and the underscore character, _, starting with a lower-case letter : anna nil x_25 x_25ab x_ miss_jones Strings of special characters: <---> ======>.:. ::= Strings of character enclosed in single quotes Tom South_America Sarah Jones 5
6 Numbers Integer Numbers (limited range) Real Numbers (not used heavily)
7 Variables Variables are strings of letters, digits and underscore characters. They start with an upper-case letter or an underscore character: X Result Object2 Participant_list _x23 _23 7
8 Anonymous variable When a variable appears in a clause once only, we do not have to invent a name for it. Example, For all X, X has a child if X is a parent of some Y. In this case, it does not depend on the name of the child. In Prolog, hasachild(x) :- parent(x,y). can be written as hasachild(x) :- parent(x,_). 8
9 More Anonymous Example There is somebody who has a child if there are two objects such that one is a parent of the other: somenody_has_child :- parent(_,_). is equivalent to somenody_has_child :- parent(x,y). 9
10 Questions with Anonymous If the anonymous variable appears in a question clause then its value is not output Example to find the people who have children but not in the names of children?- parent(x,_). 10
11 Lexical Scope of Variables and Constants lexical scope of variable names is one clause That means, if X1 occurs in two clauses, then it signifies two different variables. Each occurrence of X1 within the same clause means the same variable The same atom always means the same object in any clause, that is, throughout the whole program 11
12 Structures Structured objects (structures) are objects that have several components Components themselves can, in turn, be structures. Structures treated in the program as single objects Functor to combine the components into a single object Example, date is a functor date(1, may, 2003) 12
13 More Structures Components can also be variables or other structures Example, any day in the month of May date(day, may, 2003) Day is a variable and can be instantiated in the execution. 13
14 terms All data objects in Prolog are terms Example, may and date(1,may,2003) are terms 14
15 Example ---Structured Objects P1=point(1,1) P2=point(2,3) S=seg(P1,P2)=seg(point(1,1),point(2,3)) T=triangle(point(4,2),point(6,4),point(7,1)) 15
16 Note about functors If the same name is defined for two different roles such as point(x1,y1) and point(x,y,z) Prolog system will recognize the difference by the number of arguments and will interpret this name as two funtors: one of them with two arguments and the other with three arguments. 16
17 Structures Representation For arithmetic expression such as (a+b) * (c-5) can be written as *(+ (a,b) - (c,5) ) 17
18 Tree structure for (a+b) * (c - 5) 18
19 More Tree Structures 19
20 Tree structure representations For (a) (b) (c) and (d) can be written as seq(r1,r2) par(r1,r2) par(r1,par(r2,r3)) par(r1,seq(par(r2,r3),r4)) 20
21 Chapter 2 Syntax and Meaning of Prolog Programs Data Objects Matching Declarative meaning of Prolog programs Procedural meaning Example : monkey and banana Order of clauses and goals The relation between Prolog and logic 21
22 2.2 Matching Given two terms match if they are identical or the variables in both terms can be instantiated to objects in such a way that after the substitution of variables by these objects the terms become identical 22
23 Example?- date(d,m,2001) = date(15,may,y1). Prolog system will answer: D = 15 M = may Y1 = 2001 yes 23
24 The general rules to decide whether two terms, S and T match are as follows: If S and T are constants then S and T match only if they are the same objects If S is a variable and T is anything, then they match and S is instantiated to T. Conversely, if T is a variable then T is instantiated to S. If S and T are structures then they match only if S and T have the same principle functor and all their corresponding components match The resulting instantiation is determined by the matching of the components. 24
25 Illustration for matching Facts vertical(seg(point(x,y),point(x,y1))). % same X value horizontal(seg(point(x,y),point(x1,y))). % same Y value Questions?- vertical(seg(point(1,1),point(1,2))). yes?- vertical(seg(point(1,1),point(2,y))). no?- horizontal(seg(point(1,1),point(2,y))). Y = 1 yes 25
26 Chapter 2 Syntax and Meaning of Prolog Programs Data Objects Matching Declarative meaning of Prolog programs Procedural meaning Example : monkey and banana Order of clauses and goals The relation between Prolog and logic 26
27 2.3 Declarative meaning of Prolog programs Declarative meaning To determine whether a given goal is true and if so, for what values it is true Instance An instance of a clause C is the clause C with each of its variables substituted by some term Variant Variant of a clause C is such an instance of the clause C where each variable is substituted by another variable 27
28 Example For a clause hasachild(x) :- parent(x,y). Two variants of the clause are: hasachild(a) :- parent(a,b). hasachild(x1) :- parent(x1,x2). Instances of this clause are: hasachild(peter) :- parent(peter,z). hasachild(barry) :- parent(barry,small(caroline)). 28
29 The declarative meaning Given a program and a goal A goal G is true ( that is, satisfiable, or logically follows from the program) if and only if: there is a clause C in the program such that there is a clause instance I of C such that the head of I is identical to G, and all the goals in the body of I are true 29
30 Difference between declarative and procedural meanings For a clause P :- Q, R. Declarative reading (two alternatives) P is true if Q and R is true From Q and R follows P Procedural reading (two alternatives) to solve problem P, first solve the sub-problem Q and then the sub-problem R to satisfy P, first satisfy Q and then R 30
31 Conjunction and Disjunction Conjunction (comma) P :- Q, R. both Q and R must be true to satisfy P Disjunction (semicolon) P :- Q ; R. any one of the goals, that is, Q or R has to be true 31
32 Comma is stronger than Semicolon P :- Q, R ; S, T, U. That means, P :- (Q, R) ; (S, T, U). Another way with two clauses P :- Q, R. P :- S, T, U. 32
33 Chapter 2 Syntax and Meaning of Prolog Programs Data Objects Matching Declarative meaning of Prolog programs Procedural meaning Example : monkey and banana Order of clauses and goals The relation between Prolog and logic 33
34 2.4 Procedural meaning How Prolog answers questions to answer a question means to try to satisfy a list of goals executing a list of goals with respect to a given program execute goals means to try to satisfy them 34
35 Procedure execution Input : a program and a goal list Output a success/failure indicator and an instantiation of variables 35
36 The meaning of the two output results The success/failure indicator is yes if the goals are satisfiable and no otherwise An instantiation of variables is only produced in the case of a successful termination: in the case of failure there is no instantiation 36
37 Example to illustrate the procedural meaning Program big(bear). % Clause 1 big(elephant). % Clause 2 small(cat). % Clause 3 brown(bear). % Clause 4 black(cat). % Clause 5 gray(elephant). % Clause 6 dark(z) :- black(z). % Clause 7 dark(z) :- brown(z). % Clause 8 Question?- dark(x), big(x). % who is dark and big? 37
38 Execution Trace Step (1) Initial goal list : Step (2) dark(x), big(x). Scan the program from top to bottom match the first goal dark(x) in Clause 7 dark(z) :- black(z). replace the first goal by the instantiated body of clause 7, giving a new goal list: black(x), big(x). 38
39 Execution Trace Continue: Step (3) Scan the program to find a match with black(x). Clause 5 found black(cat). Since there is no body, the goal is instantiated X = cat and the goal list shrinks to : Step (4) big(cat). Scan the program for the goal big(cat). No Clause found. Backtrack to step 3 and undo the instantiation X = cat. Now the goal list is again : black(x), big(x). 39
40 Execution Trace Continue... Step (4) continue... Continue scanning the program below clause 5. No clause found. Backtrack to step (2) and continue scanning below clause 7. Clause 8 is found. dark(z) :- brown(z). Replace the first goal in the goal list by brown(x) : brown(x), big(x). 40
41 Execution Trace Continue... Step (5) Scan the program to match brown(x), finding brown(bear). Since this clause has no body, the goal list shrinks to : Step (6) big(bear). Scan the program and find clause big(bear). It has no body, so the goal list shrinks to empty. This indicates successful termination and the variable instantiation is : X = bear 41
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