Mobile Communications Chapter 8: Network Protocols/Mobile IP

Transcription

1 Mobile Communications Chapter 8: Network Protocols/Mobile IP Motivation Data transfer, Encapsulation Security, IPv6, Problems Micro mobility support DHCP Ad-hoc networks, Routing protocols 8.1

2 Motivation for Mobile IP Routing based on IP destination address, network prefix (e.g ) determines physical subnet change of physical subnet implies change of IP address to have a topological correct address (standard IP) or needs special entries in the routing tables Specific routes to end-systems? change of all routing table entries to forward packets to the right destination does not scale with the number of mobile hosts and frequent changes in the location, security problems Changing the IP-address? adjust the host IP address depending on the current location almost impossible to find a mobile system, DNS updates take to long time TCP connections break, security problems 8.2

3 Requirements for Mobile IPv4 (RFC 3344, was: 3220, was: 2002, updated by: 4721) Transparency mobile end-systems keep their IP address continuation of communication after interruption of link possible point of connection to the fixed network can be changed Compatibility support of the same layer 2 protocols as IP no changes to current end-systems and routers required mobile end-systems can communicate with fixed systems Security authentication of all registration messages Efficiency and scalability only little additional messages to the mobile system required (connection typically via a low bandwidth radio link) world-wide support of a large number of mobile systems in the whole Internet 8.3

4 Terminology Mobile Node (MN) system (node) that can change the point of connection to the network without changing its IP address Home Agent (HA) system in the home network of the MN, typically a router registers the location of the MN, tunnels IP datagrams to the COA Foreign Agent (FA) system in the current foreign network of the MN, typically a router forwards the tunneled datagrams to the MN, typically also the default router for the MN Care-of Address (COA) address of the current tunnel end-point for the MN (at FA or MN) actual location of the MN from an IP point of view can be chosen, e.g., via DHCP Correspondent Node (CN) communication partner 8.4

5 Example network HA MN router home network Internet mobile end-system (physical home network for the MN) router FA foreign network CN (current physical network for the MN) end-system router 8.5

6 Data transfer to the mobile system HA 2 MN home network Internet 3 receiver FA foreign network CN sender 1 1. Sender sends to the IP address of MN, HA intercepts packet (proxy ARP) 2. HA tunnels packet to COA, here FA, by encapsulation 3. FA forwards the packet to the MN 8.6

7 Data transfer from the mobile system HA 1 MN home network Internet sender FA foreign network CN 1. Sender sends to the IP address of the receiver as usual, FA works as default router receiver 8.7

8 Overview COA home network router HA router FA MN Internet foreign network CN router home network router HA 2. router FA MN Internet foreign network 1. CN router 8.8

9 Network integration Agent Advertisement HA and FA periodically send advertisement messages into their physical subnets MN listens to these messages and detects, if it is in the home or a foreign network (standard case for home network) MN reads a COA from the FA advertisement messages Registration (always limited lifetime!) MN signals COA to the HA via the FA, HA acknowledges via FA to MN these actions have to be secured by authentication Advertisement HA advertises the IP address of the MN (as for fixed systems), i.e. standard routing information routers adjust their entries, these are stable for a longer time (HA responsible for a MN over a longer period of time) packets to the MN are sent to the HA, independent of changes in COA/FA 8.9

10 Agent advertisement type code checksum #addresses addr. size lifetime router address 1 preference level 1 router address 2 preference level 2 type = 9 code = 0 or 16 type = 16 length length = * #COAs registration lifetime R: registration required B: busy, no more registrations H: home agent F: foreign agent COA 1 COA 2... M: minimal encapsulation G: GRE encapsulation r: =0, ignored (former Van Jacobson compression) T: FA supports reverse tunneling reserved: =0, ignored... sequence number T reserved R B H F M G r 8.10

11 Registration MN FA HA MN HA t t 8.11

12 Mobile IP registration request type = 1 S B DMG r T x home address lifetime home agent COA identification extensions... S: simultaneous bindings B: broadcast datagrams D: decapsulation by MN M mininal encapsulation G: GRE encapsulation r: =0, ignored T: reverse tunneling requested x: =0, ignored 8.12

13 Mobile IP registration reply type = 3 code lifetime home address home agent identification Example codes: extensions... registration successful 0 registration accepted 1 registration accepted, but simultaneous mobility bindings unsupported registration denied by FA 65 administratively prohibited 66 insufficient resources 67 mobile node failed authentication 68 home agent failed authentication 69 requested Lifetime too long registration denied by HA 129 administratively prohibited 131 mobile node failed authentication 133 registration Identification mismatch 135 too many simultaneous mobility bindings 8.13

14 Encapsulation original IP header original data new IP header new data outer header inner header original data 8.14

15 Encapsulation I Encapsulation of one packet into another as payload e.g. IPv6 in IPv4 (6Bone), Multicast in Unicast (Mbone) here: e.g. IP-in-IP-encapsulation, minimal encapsulation or GRE (Generic Record Encapsulation) IP-in-IP-encapsulation (mandatory, RFC 2003) tunnel between HA and COA ver. IHL DS (TOS) length IP identification flags fragment offset TTL IP-in-IP IP checksum IP address of HA Care-of address COA ver. IHL DS (TOS) length IP identification flags fragment offset TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum IP address of CN IP address of MN TCP/UDP/... payload 8.15

16 Encapsulation II Minimal encapsulation (optional) avoids repetition of identical fields e.g. TTL, IHL, version, DS (RFC 2474, old: TOS) only applicable for non fragmented packets, no space left for fragment identification ver. IHL DS (TOS) length IP identification flags fragment offset TTL min. encap. IP checksum IP address of HA care-of address COA lay. 4 protoc. S reserved IP checksum IP address of MN original sender IP address (if S=1) TCP/UDP/... payload 8.16

17 Generic Routing Encapsulation original header original data outer header GRE header original header original data RFC 1701 new header new data ver. IHL DS (TOS) length IP identification flags fragment offset TTL GRE IP checksum IP address of HA Care-of address COA CR K S s rec. rsv. ver. protocol checksum (optional) offset (optional) key (optional) sequence number (optional) routing (optional) ver. IHL DS (TOS) length IP identification flags fragment offset TTL lay. 4 prot. IP checksum IP address of CN IP address of MN TCP/UDP/... payload C RFC 2784 (updated by 2890) reserved0 ver. protocol checksum (optional) reserved1 (=0) 8.17

18 Optimization of packet forwarding Problem: Triangular Routing sender sends all packets via HA to MN higher latency and network load Solutions sender learns the current location of MN direct tunneling to this location HA informs a sender about the location of MN big security problems! Change of FA packets on-the-fly during the change can be lost new FA informs old FA to avoid packet loss, old FA now forwards remaining packets to new FA this information also enables the old FA to release resources for the MN 8.18

19 Change of foreign agent CN HA FA old FA new MN Data Data Data Update ACK Warning Data Data Update ACK Data Data Registration Data MN changes location Request Update ACK Data Data t 8.19

20 Reverse tunneling (RFC 3024, was: 2344) HA 2 MN home network Internet 1 sender FA foreign network CN receiver 3 1. MN sends to FA 2. FA tunnels packets to HA by encapsulation 3. HA forwards the packet to the receiver (standard case) 8.20

21 Mobile IP with reverse tunneling Router accept often only topological correct addresses (firewall!) a packet from the MN encapsulated by the FA is now topological correct furthermore multicast and TTL problems solved (TTL in the home network correct, but MN is to far away from the receiver) Reverse tunneling does not solve problems with firewalls, the reverse tunnel can be abused to circumvent security mechanisms (tunnel hijacking) optimization of data paths, i.e. packets will be forwarded through the tunnel via the HA to a sender (double triangular routing) The standard is backwards compatible the extensions can be implemented easily and cooperate with current implementations without these extensions Agent Advertisements can carry requests for reverse tunneling 8.21

22 Mobile IP and IPv6 (RFC 3775) Mobile IP was developed for IPv4, but IPv6 simplifies the protocols security is integrated and not an add-on, authentication of registration is included COA can be assigned via auto-configuration (DHCPv6 is one candidate), every node has address auto-configuration no need for a separate FA, all routers perform router advertisement which can be used instead of the special agent advertisement; addresses are always co-located MN can signal a sender directly the COA, sending via HA not needed in this case (automatic path optimization) soft hand-over, i.e. without packet loss, between two subnets is supported MN sends the new COA to its old router the old router encapsulates all incoming packets for the MN and forwards them to the new COA authentication is always granted 8.22

23 Problems with mobile IP Security authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically belongs to another organization no protocol for key management and key distribution has been standardized in the Internet patent and export restrictions Firewalls typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls, special set-ups are needed (such as reverse tunneling) QoS many new reservations in case of RSVP tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special treatment needed for the QoS Security, firewalls, QoS etc. are topics of research and discussions 8.23

24 Security in Mobile IP Security requirements (Security Architecture for the Internet Protocol, RFC 4301, was: 1825, 2401) Integrity any changes to data between sender and receiver can be detected by the receiver Authentication sender address is really the address of the sender and all data received is really data sent by this sender Confidentiality only sender and receiver can read the data Non-Repudiation sender cannot deny sending of data Traffic Analysis creation of traffic and user profiles should not be possible Replay Protection receivers can detect replay of messages 8.24

25 IP security architecture I Two or more partners have to negotiate security mechanisms to setup a security association typically, all partners choose the same parameters and mechanisms Two headers have been defined for securing IP packets: Authentication-Header guarantees integrity and authenticity of IP packets if asymmetric encryption schemes are used, non-repudiation can also be guaranteed IP-Header header Authentification-Header authentication header UDP/TCP-Paket data Encapsulation Security Payload protects confidentiality between communication partners not encrypted IP header ESP header encrypted encrypted data 8.25

26 IP security architecture II Mobile Security Association for registrations parameters for the mobile host (MH), home agent (HA), and foreign agent (FA) Extensions of the IP security architecture extended authentication of registration MH-FA authentication FA-HA authentication MH-HA authentication registration request registration request MH FA HA registration reply registration reply prevention of replays of registrations time stamps: 32 bit time stamps + 32 bit random number nonces: 32 bit random number (MH) + 32 bit random number (HA) 8.26

27 Key distribution Home agent distributes session keys FA MH HA response: E HA-FA {session key} E HA-MH {session key} foreign agent has a security association with the home agent mobile host registers a new binding at the home agent home agent answers with a new session key for foreign agent and mobile node 8.27

28 IP Micro-mobility support Micro-mobility support: Efficient local handover inside a foreign domain without involving a home agent Reduces control traffic on backbone Especially needed in case of route optimization Example approaches (research, not products): Cellular IP HAWAII Hierarchical Mobile IP (HMIP) Important criteria: Security Efficiency, Scalability, Transparency, Manageability 8.28

29 Cellular IP Operation: CIP Nodes maintain routing entries (soft state) for MNs Multiple entries possible Routing entries updated based on packets sent by MN CIP Gateway: Mobile IP tunnel endpoint Initial registration processing Security provisions: all CIP Nodes share network key MN key: MD5(net key, IP addr) MN gets key upon registration data/control packets from MN 1 BS MN1 BS Internet CIP Gateway BS MN2 Mobile IP packets from MN2 to MN

30 Cellular IP: Security Advantages: Initial registration involves authentication of MNs and is processed centrally by CIP Gateway All control messages by MNs are authenticated Replay-protection (using timestamps) Potential problems: MNs can directly influence routing entries Network key known to many entities (increases risk of compromise) No re-keying mechanisms for network key No choice of algorithm (always MD5, prefix+suffix mode) Proprietary mechanisms (not, e.g., IPSec AH) 8.30

31 Cellular IP: Other issues Advantages: Simple and elegant architecture Mostly self-configuring (little management needed) Integration with firewalls / private address support possible Potential problems: Not transparent to MNs (additional control messages) Public-key encryption of MN keys may be a problem for resource-constrained MNs Multiple-path forwarding may cause inefficient use of available bandwidth 8.31

32 HAWAII Operation: MN obtains co-located COA and registers with HA 2 Handover: MN keeps COA, new BS answers Reg. 4 Request and updates routers MN views BS as foreign agent Security provisions: MN-FA authentication mandatory Challenge/Response Extensions mandatory 3 1 BS BS Mobile IP 3 MN Crossover Router 4 Internet HA Backbone Router 2 Mobile IP BS MN 1 DHCP Server DHCP 8.32

33 HAWAII: Security Advantages: Mutual authentication and C/R extensions mandatory Only infrastructure components can influence routing entries Potential problems: Co-located COA raises DHCP security issues (DHCP has no strong authentication) Decentralized security-critical functionality (Mobile IP registration processing during handover) in base stations Authentication of HAWAII protocol messages unspecified (potential attackers: stationary nodes in foreign network) MN authentication requires PKI or AAA infrastructure 8.33

34 HAWAII: Other issues Advantages: Mostly transparent to MNs (MN sends/receives standard Mobile IP messages) Explicit support for dynamically assigned home addresses Potential problems: Mixture of co-located COA and FA concepts may not be supported by some MN implementations No private address support possible because of co-located COA 8.34

35 Hierarchical Mobile IPv6 (RFC 4140) Operation: Network contains mobility anchor point (MAP) mapping of regional COA (RCOA) to link COA (LCOA) Upon handover, MN informs MAP only gets new LCOA, keeps RCOA HA is only contacted if MAP changes Security provisions: no HMIP-specific security provisions binding updates should be authenticated binding update Internet HA RCOA MAP AR AR LCOA LCOA new old MN MN 8.35

36 Hierarchical Mobile IP: Security Advantages: Local COAs can be hidden, which provides at least some location privacy Direct routing between CNs sharing the same link is possible (but might be dangerous) Potential problems: Decentralized security-critical functionality (handover processing) in mobility anchor points MNs can (must!) directly influence routing entries via binding updates (authentication necessary) 8.36

37 Hierarchical Mobile IP: Other issues Advantages: Handover requires minimum number of overall changes to routing tables Integration with firewalls / private address support possible Potential problems: Not transparent to MNs Handover efficiency in wireless mobile scenarios: Complex MN operations All routing reconfiguration messages sent over wireless link 8.37

38 DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Application simplification of installation and maintenance of networked computers supplies systems with all necessary information, such as IP address, DNS server address, domain name, subnet mask, default router etc. enables automatic integration of systems into an Intranet or the Internet, can be used to acquire a COA for Mobile IP Client/Server-Model the client sends via a MAC broadcast a request to the DHCP server (might be via a DHCP relay) DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVER server client client relay 8.38

39 DHCP - protocol mechanisms server (not selected) determine the configuration client initialization DHCPDISCOVER DHCPDISCOVER DHCPOFFER DHCPOFFER collection of replies selection of configuration server (selected) determine the configuration DHCPREQUEST (reject) DHCPREQUEST (options) DHCPACK confirmation of configuration initialization completed release DHCPRELEASE delete context 8.39

40 DHCP characteristics Server several servers can be configured for DHCP, coordination not yet standardized (i.e., manual configuration) Renewal of configurations IP addresses have to be requested periodically, simplified protocol Options available for routers, subnet mask, NTP (network time protocol) timeserver, SLP (service location protocol) directory, DNS (domain name system) 8.40

41 Mobile ad hoc networks Standard Mobile IP needs an infrastructure Home Agent/Foreign Agent in the fixed network DNS, routing etc. are not designed for mobility Sometimes there is no infrastructure! remote areas, ad-hoc meetings, disaster areas cost can also be an argument against an infrastructure! Main topic: routing no default router available every node should be able to forward A B C 8.41

42 Solution: Wireless ad-hoc networks Network without infrastructure Use components of participants for networking Examples Single-hop: All partners max. one hop apart Bluetooth piconet, PDAs in a room, gaming devices Multi-hop: Cover larger distances, circumvent obstacles Bluetooth scatternet, TETRA police network, car-to-car networks Internet: MANET (Mobile Ad-hoc Networking) group 8.42

43 Manet: Mobile Ad-hoc Networking Mobile Router Manet Mobile Devices Mobile IP, DHCP Fixed Network Router End system 8.43

44 Problem No. 1: Routing Highly dynamic network topology Device mobility plus varying channel quality Separation and merging of networks possible Asymmetric connections possible N 7 N 6 N 6 N 7 N 1 N 2 N 3 N 1 N 2 N 3 N 4 N 5 N 4 N 5 time = t 1 time = t 2 good link weak link 8.44

45 Traditional routing algorithms Distance Vector periodic exchange of messages with all physical neighbors that contain information about who can be reached at what distance selection of the shortest path if several paths available Link State periodic notification of all routers about the current state of all physical links router get a complete picture of the network Example ARPA packet radio network (1973), DV-Routing every 7.5s exchange of routing tables including link quality updating of tables also by reception of packets routing problems solved with limited flooding 8.45

46 Routing in ad-hoc networks THE big topic in many research projects Far more than 50 different proposals exist The most simplest one: Flooding! Reasons Classical approaches from fixed networks fail Very slow convergence, large overhead High dynamicity, low bandwidth, low computing power Metrics for routing Minimal Number of nodes, loss rate, delay, congestion, interference Maximal Stability of the logical network, battery run-time, time of connectivity 8.46

47 Problems of traditional routing algorithms Dynamic of the topology frequent changes of connections, connection quality, participants Limited performance of mobile systems periodic updates of routing tables need energy without contributing to the transmission of user data, sleep modes difficult to realize limited bandwidth of the system is reduced even more due to the exchange of routing information links can be asymmetric, i.e., they can have a direction dependent transmission quality 8.47

48 DSDV (Destination Sequenced Distance Vector, historical) Early work on demand version: AODV Expansion of distance vector routing Sequence numbers for all routing updates assures in-order execution of all updates avoids loops and inconsistencies Decrease of update frequency store time between first and best announcement of a path inhibit update if it seems to be unstable (based on the stored time values) 8.48

49 Dynamic source routing I Split routing into discovering a path and maintaining a path Discover a path only if a path for sending packets to a certain destination is needed and no path is currently available Maintaining a path only while the path is in use one has to make sure that it can be used continuously No periodic updates needed! 8.49

50 Dynamic source routing II Path discovery broadcast a packet with destination address and unique ID if a station receives a broadcast packet if the station is the receiver (i.e., has the correct destination address) then return the packet to the sender (path was collected in the packet) if the packet has already been received earlier (identified via ID) then discard the packet otherwise, append own address and broadcast packet sender receives packet with the current path (address list) Optimizations limit broadcasting if maximum diameter of the network is known caching of address lists (i.e. paths) with help of passing packets stations can use the cached information for path discovery (own paths or paths for other hosts) 8.50

51 DSR: Route Discovery Sending from C to O P R C G Q A B E H I K M O D F J L N 8.51

52 DSR: Route Discovery Broadcast P R [O,C,4711] C [O,C,4711] G Q A B E H I K M O D F J L N 8.52

53 DSR: Route Discovery P R [O,C/B,4711] C [O,C/G,4711] G [O,C/G,4711] Q A B E [O,C/E,4711] H I K M O D F J L N 8.53

54 DSR: Route Discovery P R C G Q A [O,C/B/A,4711] B D E F H [O,C/G/I,4711] I K [O,C/E/H,4711] L J M N O [O,C/B/D,4711] (alternatively: [O,C/E/D,4711]) 8.54

55 DSR: Route Discovery P R C G Q A B E H I [O,C/G/I/K,4711] K M O D F J L N [O,C/B/D/F,4711] [O,C/E/H/J,4711] 8.55

56 DSR: Route Discovery P R C G Q A B E H I K [O,C/G/I/K/M,4711] M O D F J L N [O,C/E/H/J/L,4711] (alternatively: [O,C/G/I/K/L,4711]) 8.56

57 DSR: Route Discovery P R C G Q A B E H I K M O D F J L N [O,C/E/H/J/L/N,4711] 8.57

58 DSR: Route Discovery P R C G Q A B E H I K Path: M, K, I, G M O D F J L N 8.58

59 Dynamic Source Routing III Maintaining paths after sending a packet wait for a layer 2 acknowledgement (if applicable) listen into the medium to detect if other stations forward the packet (if possible) request an explicit acknowledgement if a station encounters problems it can inform the sender of a packet or look-up a new path locally 8.59

60 Reactive protocols AODV Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector routing (AODV) Very popular routing protocol Essentially same basic idea as DSR for discovery procedure Nodes maintain routing tables instead of source routing Sequence numbers added to handle stale caches Nodes remember from where a packet came and populate routing tables with that information 60 Wireless Sensor Networks: Routing Protocols 8.60

61 AODV Route Requests (RREQ) are forwarded in a manner similar to DSR When a node re-broadcasts a Route Request, it sets up a reverse path pointing towards the source AODV assumes symmetric (bi-directional) links When the intended destination receives a Route Request, it replies by sending a Route Reply Route Reply travels along the reverse path set-up when Route Request is forwarded 8.61

62 Route Requests in AODV Y Z S E A B H C I G F K J D M N L Represents a node that has received RREQ for D from S 8.62

63 Route Requests in AODV Broadcast transmission Y Z S E A B H C I G F K J D M N L Represents transmission of RREQ 8.63

64 Route Requests in AODV Y Dest. Next hop S S Z S E A B H C I G F K J D M N L Represents links on Reverse Path 8.64

65 Reverse Path Setup in AODV Y Dest. Next hop S S E S S E Z A B H C I G F K J D M N L Node C receives RREQ from G and H, but does not forward it again, because node C has already forwarded RREQ once 8.65

66 Reverse Path Setup in AODV Y S S E S S E Z A B H C I G F K S J F D M N L 8.66

67 Reverse Path Setup in AODV Y S S E S S E Z A B H C I G F K S J F S M D J N L Node D does not forward RREQ, because node D is the intended target of the RREQ 8.67

68 Route Reply in AODV Y S S E S S E Z A B H C I G F K S J F S M D J N L Represents links on path taken by RREP (Route Reply) 8.68

69 Route Reply in AODV An intermediate node (not the destination) may also send a Route Reply (RREP) provided that it knows a more recent path than the one previously known to sender S To determine whether the path known to an intermediate node is more recent, destination sequence numbers are used The likelihood that an intermediate node will send a Route Reply when using AODV not as high as DSR A new Route Request by node S for a destination is assigned a higher destination sequence number. An intermediate node which knows a route, but with a smaller sequence number, cannot send Route Reply 8.69

70 Forward Path Setup in AODV Dest. Next hop Y D E S D E F D J Z A B H C I G F K J D D D M N L Forward links are setup when RREP travels along the reverse path Represents a link on the forward path 8.70

71 Data Delivery in AODV Y A B H D E S DATA C I D E F G D F J K J D D D M Z N L Routing table entries used to forward data packet. Route is not included in packet header. 8.71

72 Why Sequence Numbers in AODV To avoid using old/broken routes To determine which route is newer To prevent formation of loops A B C D E Assume that A does not know about failure of link C-D because RERR sent by C is lost Now C performs a route discovery for D. Node A receives the RREQ (say, via path C-E-A) Node A will reply since A knows a route to D via node B Results in a loop (for instance, C-E-A-B-C ) 8.72

73 Summary: AODV Routes need not be included in packet headers Nodes maintain routing tables containing entries only for routes that are in active use At most one next-hop per destination maintained at each node DSR may maintain several routes for a single destination Unused routes expire even if topology does not change 8.73

74 Implementation of a Routing Funtionality using RPL RPL: Routing Protocol for Low- Power and Lossy Networks Application in Sensornetworks Optimized for many-to-one communication and networks with high packet error rate Only for IPv6 specified IETF Working group ROLL Implemented in Contiki 2.5 Contiki Network Stack with RPL [3] 8.74

75 RPL Functionality Target-oriented, directed acyclic graphs (DODAG) All nodes contain the route to the DODAG Root ICMP Messages: DIO periodical messages: DODAG Information Objects DIS: DODAG Information Solicitation messages Destination Advertisement Object (DAO) - used to propagate destination information upwards along the DODAG. DIO period increases exponentially until a change is detected (< overhead). Different RPL networks choose different objective functions. Node Rank: Defines a node's relative position within a DODAG with respect to the DODAG root. ETX Metric node rank (Contiki 2.5) 8.75

76 Comparison between RPL and AODV Packet delivery ratio vs. node-gateway distance in a metering network [4] Average end-to-end delay of inward traffic vs. nodes distance to the gateway 8.76

77 Interference-based routing Routing based on assumptions about interference between signals N 1 N 2 R 1 S 1 N 3 N 4 N 5 N 6 R 2 S 2 neighbors (i.e. within radio range) N 7 N 8 N

78 Examples for interference based routing Least Interference Routing (LIR) calculate the cost of a path based on the number of stations that can receive a transmission Max-Min Residual Capacity Routing (MMRCR) calculate the cost of a path based on a probability function of successful transmissions and interference Least Resistance Routing (LRR) calculate the cost of a path based on interference, jamming and other transmissions LIR is very simple to implement, only information from direct neighbors is necessary 8.78

79 A plethora of ad hoc routing protocols Flat proactive FSLS Fuzzy Sighted Link State FSR Fisheye State Routing OLSR Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (RFC 3626) TBRPF Topology Broadcast Based on Reverse Path Forwarding reactive AODV Ad hoc On demand Distance Vector (RFC 3561) DSR Dynamic Source Routing (RFC 4728) DYMO Dynamic MANET On-demand Hierarchical CGSR Clusterhead-Gateway Switch Routing HSR Hierarchical State Routing LANMAR Landmark Ad Hoc Routing ZRP Zone Routing Protocol Geographic position assisted DREAM Distance Routing Effect Algorithm for Mobility GeoCast Geographic Addressing and Routing GPSR Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing LAR Location-Aided Routing Two promising candidates: OLSRv2 and DYMO 8.79

80 Further difficulties and research areas Auto-Configuration Assignment of addresses, function, profile, program, Service discovery Discovery of services and service providers Multicast Transmission to a selected group of receivers Quality-of-Service Maintenance of a certain transmission quality Power control Minimizing interference, energy conservation mechanisms Security Data integrity, protection from attacks (e.g. Denial of Service) Scalability 10 nodes? 100 nodes? 1000 nodes? nodes? Integration with fixed networks 8.80

81 Clustering of ad-hoc networks Base station Internet Cluster head Cluster Super cluster 8.81