An Agenda for Robust Peer-to-Peer Storage

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1 An Agenda for Robust Peer-to-Peer Storage Rodrigo Rodrigues Massachusetts Institute of Technology Abstract Robust, large-scale storage is one of the main applications of DHTs and a main goal for the IRIS project. In this paper, we present a research agenda for the design and implementation of a robust storage system based on DHTs. We analyze previous research papers to conclude that a DHT for robust storage does not require some of the properties of existing DHTs (e.g., tolerating aggressive membership dynamics) but requires other properties that some DHTs do not possess (e.g., Byzantine fault tolerance). 1 Introduction The IRIS ITR [15] proposes a novel decentralized infrastructure based on distributed hash tables (DHTs) [7, 13, 19], that will enable a new generation of large-scale distributed applications. One proposed use for this infrastructure is to build a robust, shared storage infrastructure that will automatically inherit the robustness and scalability properties of the underlying DHT. DHTs are themselves built on top of peer-topeer lookup overlays [16, 18, 21, 23]. These overlays locate objects in the system using a very small amount of membership state at each node. This makes the object location algorithms robust to intermittent participation and scalable to many unreliable nodes with fast membership dynamics. In this paper we present an agenda for research in robust peer-to-peer storage. We summarize results from some of our previous research and present future guidelines for the design of peerto-peer storage systems. We begin this paper by analyzing the possible deployment scenario for a robust DHT (section 2). We summarize results from a previous paper that points out that storage availability and building a system from unreliable components are likely to be incompatible goals. In section 3 we investigate which characteristics of current DHT and peer-to-peer lookup proposals are beneficial and which ones are prejudicial, given that we are modifying the assumption about the deployment scenario of the system. Section 4 presents other design goals, and we conclude in section 5. 2 Peer Dynamics and Robust Storage Distributed hash tables build on peer-to-peer routing overlays to locate objects in the system despite large scale membership and aggressive membership dynamics. Some papers [1, 12] express a hope that, with extra data redundancy, storage can inherit scalability and robustness from the underlying lookup procedure, despite underlying node instability. This would allow building reliable and available peer-to-peer storage systems from highly unreliable components, notably volunteers that donate spare storage and bandwidth to the system. In a recent paper [2], we analyzed the bandwidth requirements for maintaining data redundancy in face of a dynamic membership. For this, we based ourselves on a conservative analytic model. The main conclusion of our study is that, even if we apply several optimizations such 1

2 as using space-efficient coding schemes or delayed response to failures, the bandwidth requirements to maintain redundancy for interesting data scales are prohibitive for home users. For instance, 10 million users with 25% availability and an average membership lifetime of 1 week, require an average upstream bandwidth of 50 kbps for data redundancy maintenance only, assuming each node donates 100 GB to the common storage. These numbers are not encouraging, and the situation tends to get worse given current hardware trends. Since available disk space is growing much faster than end-user bandwidth, it is likely that peers are going to be willing to donate more storage than their bandwidth allows them to. 2.1 How Dynamic are Peers? The bandwidth analysis mentioned before assumes nodes remain members of the overlay for a week. However, a recent study [20] showed that median session times in the Gnutella file sharing system were about an hour long. This makes the bandwidth requirements even higher for the example given above. However, we analyzed how we can change membership lifetimes by carefully distinguishing temporary disconnections from membership leaves. We looked at how the membership lifetimes from the Gnutella trace would change if we delayed response to failures, i.e., if we only considered a node to have departed from the membership if it was unreachable after a certain timeout value. Note that increasing the membership timeout will result in longer membership durations, but will also decrease the average node availability. Our study concluded that membership timeouts decrease membership dynamics by more than one order of magnitude, and are useful in decreasing bandwidth requirements to maintain robust peerto-peer storage for Gnutella-like peer dynamics. However, the bandwidth requirements are still prohibitive for home users. 2.2 Server-to-Server DHTs Our proposed solution to overcome this problem is to build DHTs from more reliable components than every volunteer s PC. These can be either dedicated machines or desktop machines in a large corporation, an academic institution, or federations thereof. (We call this a server-to-server system.) Studies show that the availability of machines in a large corporation is extremely high compared to the availability of Gnutella users [3]. Changing the deployment scenario raises an interesting question: how would one distinguish a server-to-server system from a garden variety distributed system? We believe that peer-to-peer systems have several interesting properties that are useful in a DHT, independently of the deployment scenario, such as: Self-configuration changes to the system membership, or reconfiguration due to failures can be addressed with minimal or no human intervention. Symmetry Due to the use of randomized algorithms such as consistent hashing [11], all nodes have identical responsibilities in storing the data, which helps in keeping the system automatically load-balanced despite membership changes. Scalability The first two points imply an interesting property of peer-to-peer systems: the desirable properties of the system (throughput, storage size, reliability, etc.) scale well just by adding nodes to the system. Therefore, our research agenda is to build a DHT that retains these advantages of peer-to-peer system, but drops the advantage of harnessing spare resources of volunteers that participate in the system. Note that in such a scenario Sybil 2

3 attacks [8] are much less of a threat to the system, since it is much easier to correlate entities and identities. 3 Lookup Infrastructure As mentioned, most DHTs use peer-to-peer lookup algorithms [16, 18, 21, 23] to locate objects in the system. These algorithms maintain a small amount of per-node routing state (typically Ç ÐÓ Æµ, or even Ç ½µ for some recent algorithms [10]), which allows the amount of bookkeeping to be small, despite expected aggressive membership dynamics. Unfortunately, keeping a small amount of routing state complicates the system in several ways. The most obvious one is that it introduces extra latency to the object lookup, due to the fact that this operation requires contacting several (possibly distant) nodes in sequence. Some applications can tolerate high latency lookups (e.g., archival backup), and furthermore lookup latency can be hidden if several lookups can be issued in parallel with object downloads. However, it is not clear if this is true about all applications. Other complications ensue from multi-hop lookups. Security is decreased if you contact several nodes in sequence, since one malicious node among all the nodes contacted may suffice to subvert (or at least slow down) the operation. Note that techniques have been proposed to probabilistically work around this problem [5], but to the expense of either taking risks about wrong lookups or increased lookup latency. Also, having limited information about the other nodes makes server selection for several purposes (e.g., picking the maximum bandwidth access) more complicated. We argue that robust peer-to-peer systems can keep complete routing information, and therefore overcome the limitations we mentioned. To prove this, we will consider all possible problems that may arise from keeping complete routing information. Bandwidth requirements One possible problem is that the bandwidth required to propagate all membership changes to all the nodes are excessive. In a recent paper [9] we examined the feasibility of a one hop lookup system where nodes keep complete routing information. This paper presented a design that, even with Gnutella-like session dynamics, had reasonable bandwidth requirements to maintain complete routing information (i.e., a few kbps for a ½¼¼ ¼¼¼ node system). Note that our previous research [2] found that true Gnutella membership dynamics are much less aggressive than session dynamics (if we distinguish temporary departures from membership changes as mentioned in section 2). Plus, our target deployment is much more stable than home users connected to Gnutella. Therefore bandwidth requirements are not going to make maintaining full routing information impossible. Memory requirements Another possible problem are the memory requirements for maintaining a complete routing table in primary memory. However, a simple calculation dismisses this problem. If we store, for each node, a 20-byte identifier (based on a SHA-1 hash) and a 6-byte IPv4 network address, the routing table for a 10 million node overlay would occupy only 260 MB. Even for such a large system, this would fit on the primary memory of commodity PCs that are sold nowadays. Therefore, we do not intend to incorporate peer-to-peer routing in our robust DHT, but instead keep a complete routing table and focus on other problems. Note that if the system maintains complete membership knowledge at each node, the data placement function becomes quite irrelevant: e.g., switching from using consistent hashing [11] to Pastry s nearest node metric [18] would be a trivial operation in such a system. 3

4 Even though we believe that peer-to-peer lookup algorithms are inadequate for robust storage systems, we do not advocate that these algorithms are useless. These might be convenient if the application in question tolerates high membership dynamics and the deployment scenario foresees a large and dynamic membership, or for applications that exploit the topology formed by the underlying location algorithm (e.g., application level multicast [4]). 4 Other Design Goals In this section we summarize other design guidelines we intend to incorporate in our robust peerto-peer storage system. We intend our system to survive catastrophic failures by making extensive use of wide-area replication. This contrasts with most dedicated storage systems where it is assumed that all replicas are connected by a fast network, and therefore failures are a stronger correlation than if the replicas were geographically diverse. We also want to provide tolerance to Byzantine faults. We believe Byzantine fault tolerance will be increasingly important in the future because malicious attacks and software errors are increasingly common and can cause faulty nodes to exhibit arbitrary behavior. Therefore, we are focusing on a Byzantine failure model. Note that Byzantine-fault-tolerant replication requires more bandwidth than fail-stop replication, due to the increased redundancy requirements to tolerate arbitrary failures. However, the deployment scenario presented in Section 2 implies that data transfers should be rare, and also the bandwidth requirements can be minimized using efficient coding schemes [22]. Note that Oceanstore [13] is a DHT that can offer Byzantine fault tolerance by using a small number of primary tier replicas that serialize updates using the BFT protocol [6]. Our current research is focusing on designing algorithms that work better than BFT on a wide area network. This is challenging since we are trying to provide strong semantics while minimizing the number of network round trips. Plus, our algorithms have to work in a dynamic setting where the replicas for a particular data item will change throughout the execution. This dynamic behavior is not tolerated by most Byzantine-fault-tolerant replication algorithms. Our system should also allow applications to choose slightly weaker semantics (e.g., sequential consistency [14]) in order to improve performance. 5 Conclusions In this paper we presented design guidelines for a robust peer-to-peer storage system. We analyzed previous research and concluded that we had to part from existing DHTs in the deployment scenario and the object location algorithms. A preliminary design for such a system appeared in a previous publication [17], even though it did not include some of the characteristics we mentioned previously. In the future, we intend to present a complete design and implementation that incorporate the guidelines in this paper, and deploy it in a widearea testbed. Acknowledgements The author thanks Chuck Blake and Barbara Liskov for helpful discussions on the topic of this paper. This research is supported by DARPA under contract F monitored by the Air Force Research Laboratory, NSF Grant IIS , and a Praxis XXI fellowship. References [1] H. Balakrishnan, M. F. Kaashoek, D. Karger, R. Morris, and I. Stoica. Looking up data in P2P systems. Communications of the ACM, pages 43 48, Feb

5 [2] C. Blake and R. Rodrigues. High availability, scalable storage, dynamic peer networks: Pick two. In Proc. of the Ninth Workshop on Hot Topics in Operating Systems (HotOS-IX), Lihue, HI, May [3] W. J. Bolosky, J. R. Douceur, D. Ely, and M. Theimer. Feasibility of a serverless distributed file system deployed on an existing set of desktop PCs. In Proc. ACM SIGMETRICS International Conference on Measurement and Modeling of Computer Systems, June [4] M. Castro, P. Druschel, A.-M. Kermarrec, and A. Rowstron. SCRIBE: A large-scale and decentralised application-level multicast infrastructure. IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications (JSAC), [5] M. Castro, P. Druschell, A. Ganesh, A. Rowstron, and D. S. Wallach. Security for structured peer-to-peer overlay networks. In Proceedings of the 5th OSDI, Boston, Massachusetts, Dec [6] M. Castro and B. Liskov. Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance. In Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Operating Systems Design and Implementation (OSDI), New Orleans, LA, Feb [7] F. Dabek, M. F. Kaashoek, D. Karger, R. Morris, and I. Stoica. Wide-area cooperative storage with CFS. In Proc. 18th ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles, Banff, Canada, Oct [8] J. Douceur. The sybil attack. In Proc. 1st International Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems. [9] A. Gupta, B. Liskov, and R. Rodrigues. One hop lookups for peer-to-peer overlays. In Proc. of the Ninth Workshop on Hot Topics in Operating Systems (HotOS-IX), Lihue, HI, May [10] M. F. Kaashoek and D. Karger. Koorde: A simple degree-optimal hash table. In Proc. of the 2nd International Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems (IPTPS 03), Berkeley, CA, Feb [11] D. Karger, E. Lehman, F. Leighton, M. Levine, D. Lewin, and R. Panigrahy. Consistent hashing and random trees: Distributed caching protocols for relieving hot spots on the World Wide Web. In Proceedings of the 29th Annual ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, pages , El Paso, TX, May [12] J. Kubiatowicz. Extracting guarantees from chaos. Communications of the ACM, pages 33 38, Feb [13] J. Kubiatowicz, D. Bindel, Y. Chen, S. Czerwinski, P. Eaton, D. Geels, R. Gummadi, S. Rhea, H. Weatherspoon, W. Weimer, C. Wells, and B. Zhao. OceanStore: An architecture for global-scale persistent storage. In Proc.9th international Conference on Architectural Support for Programming Languages and Operating Systems (ASPLOS 2000), pages , Boston, MA, November [14] L. Lamport. How to make a multiprocessor computer that correctly executes multiprocess programs. IEEE Transactions on Computers, C- 28(9): , [15] NSF ITR : Robust large-scale distributed systems. [16] S. Ratnasamy, P. Francis, M. Handley, R. Karp, and S. Shenker. A scalable content-addressable network. In Proc. ACM SIGCOMM 01 Conference, San Diego, CA, Aug [17] R. Rodrigues, B. Liskov, and L. Shrira. The design of a robust peer-to-peer system. In Proc. of the Tenth ACM SIGOPS European Workshop, Saint Emilion, France, Sept [18] A. Rowstron and P. Druschel. Pastry: Scalable, distributed object location and routing for larges cale peer-to-peer systems. In Proc. IFIP/ACM International Conference on Distributed Systems Platforms (Middleware 2001), Heidelberg, Germany, Nov [19] A. Rowstron and P. Druschel. Storage management and caching in PAST, a large-scale, persistent peer-to-peer storage utility. In Proc. 18th 5

6 ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles, Banff, Canada, Oct [20] S. Saroiu, P. K. Gummadi, and S. Gribble. A measurement study of peer-to-peer file sharing systems. In Proc. Multimedia Computing and Networking 2002 (MMCN 02), Jan [21] I. Stoica, R. Morris, D. Karger, M. F. Kaashoek, and H. Balakrishnan. Chord: A scalable peerto-peer lookup service for internet applications. In Proc. ACM SIGCOMM 01 Conference, San Diego, CA, Aug [22] H. Weatherspoon and J. D. Kubiatowicz. Erasure coding vs. replication: A quantitative comparison. In Proc. 1st International Workshop on Peer-to-Peer Systems (IPTPS 02), Cambridge, MA, Mar [23] B. Zhao, J. Kubiatowicz, and A. Joseph. Tapestry: An infrastructure for fault-tolerant wide-area location and routing. Technical Report UCB/CSD , UC Berkeley, Apr

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