Chapter - 4 DESCRIPTION OF REACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANET

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1 Chapter - 4 DESCRIPTION OF REACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANET

2 62 Chapter 4 DESCRIPTION OF REACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANET 4.1. Introduction A key issue in MANETs is the necessity that the routing protocols must be able to respond rapidly to topological changes in the network. At the same time, suitable to the limited bandwidth available through mobile radio interfaces, it is important that the network traffic, generated by the routing protocols should be kept at a minimum. Several protocols exist, addressing the problems of routing in mobile ad-hoc networks. Such protocols are traditionally divided into two classes depending on when a node acquires a route to the destination node. Reactive protocols are characterized with nodes acquiring and maintaining routes on-demand. Examples of reactive protocols include AODV, DSR etc. Proactive protocols are characterized by all nodes maintaining routes to all destinations in the network at all times. Examples of proactive protocols include the TBRPF, OLSR, etc. Reactive protocol identified as on-demand protocols because it creates routes only when they are needed. The need is initiated by the source, which initiates a route discovery process inside the network. This process is fulfilled once a route is found or all possible route permutations have been examined. After that the route maintenance procedure takes place to keep up the valid routes and to remove the improper routes. The different types of Reactive Routing Protocols are discussed in the next section. A comparison of proactive and reactive protocol is deliberated Comparison of Proactive and Reactive Protocols The tradeoffs between proactive and reactive routing strategies are quite complex [SJK12]. The better approach depends on various factors, such as the range of the network, the mobility, the data transfer and so on. Proactive routing protocols make an effort to preserve routes to all possible destinations, despite of whether or not they are desirable. Routing information is constantly maintained and propagated. On contrast, reactive routing protocols commence route discovery on the demand of data transfer traffic. Routes are desired only to those preferred destinations.

3 63 This routing approach can spectacularly reduce routing overhead when a network is relatively static and the active transfer is low. However, the source node have to wait until a route to the destination can be revealed, increasing the reply time. The hybrid routing approach can adjust its routing strategies according to the network characteristics and thus provides an attractive method for routing in MANETs. However, a network's individuality, such as the mobility and traffic pattern, can be expected to be energetic. The linked information is very difficult to obtain and maintain. This complexity makes hard to implement the dynamically adjusting routing strategies. The following table 4.1 briefly compares the proactive (Table- Driven) routing protocol with Reactive (On- Demand) routing protocols [AGC12]. Table 4.1: Comparison of Proactive and Reactive Protocols Proactive Protocols Effort to maintain constant up-to-date routing information from each node to every other node in the network Constant propagation of routing information periodically even when topology change does not occur Incurs substantial traffic and power consumption, which is generally scarce in mobile computers. First packet latency is less due to periodic updates. A route to each node in ad-hoc network is always available Reactive Protocols A route is built only when required. No cyclic updates. Organized data is not propagated except there is a change in topology. Does not incur substantial traffic and power consumption compared to table driven protocols First packet latency is more because a route needs to be built. A route is not available always Description of Reactive Routing Protocols in MANET Reactive Routing Protocol (RRP) is a bandwidth-efficient on-demand routing protocol for MANETs [ARM01]. In this protocol the originator node initiates the route search process, whenever it needs to send data packets to a target node. Thus the need for a route triggers the process of route hunt, thus the name Reactive Routing Protocol. RRP is intended to be implemented in the network layer of mobile nodes i.e. in the layer 3 of OSI

4 64 reference model. Route Discovery and Route Maintenance functions of the protocol are described next Route Discovery RRP is diverse from other optional on-demand routing protocols, by the manner it uses the Incremental Search Method (ISM), thus making it more bandwidth-efficient and reducing the number of links traversed for the same routes discovered as compared to a broadcast based method [APR12]. In the Incremental Search Method of RRP, every node maintains a list of its direct neighbors i.e. the nodes that have direct communication link with source node. In addition to the address of neighbor nodes, source node also records the link cost to this neighbor and the time of neighbor discovery in its neighbor list. The neighbor list is maintained by periodically sending Echo packets by each node and the node receiving this packet will respond back immediately. Measurement of the round-trip time and dividing it by two gives the link cost to this neighbor. The neighbor list is not used just for route discovery but also for route maintenance and can be used for other optimizations to the protocol. Under the Incremental Search Method, whenever an originator node needs to send data packets to a target node and it has a valid route to target node in its routing tables or neighbor list, it can progress with the data transfer to that node through this route. If originator node could not find a valid route to target node, then the source node would send a route discovery packet with an incremented value of Dis_Identification Number for this target node to each of its neighbors from the neighbor list. Originator Address, Target Address and Dis_Identification Number uniquely identify a route discovery packet. Each node that receives a route discovery packet would look for a route to target node in its routing tables and neighbor list. In case a node finds a route to target node then it would send a route verification packet to target node so that it could reply with a route confirmation packet back to the source node. This is done to ensure that this route is valid and is not broken down. If no route verification packet is received by source node within a certain timeout period associated with each sending of route verification packet, then it can presume that this route is not valid anymore. A route discovery process might return more than one route from originator to target in which case the originator would keep most optimal route in its Active Routing Table and other routes in its Passive Routing Table.

5 65 The table helps in expediting future route discoveries or when the route in Active Routing Table gets broken. The major advantage of this method is that all the nodes in the network apart from target node know about the possible routes through their routing tables. This drops the route overhead for future route discoveries and adds more to the bandwidth efficiency of RRP Route Maintenance RRP uses Surroundings Repair Method (SRM), for the detection of link breaks and repair of an accessible route. To execute Surroundings Repair Method each node keeps record of next hop and next to next hop for each target entry in its routing tables. This method works both proactively and reactively. In the proactive approach, each node when it detects a change in its neighbor list in the way that its link to an old neighbor node is now broken, it initiates Surroundings Repair Method for those routes in its Active Routing Table that use as their next hop. In the reactive approach, when the source node is unable to forward data packets to node target node due to a break in its link to target node, it initiates Surroundings Repair Method for all those routes in its Active Routing Table that use as their next hop [ABM12]. The advantage of Surroundings Repair Method is that if a route is repaired successfully the overhead incurred in sending a route invalid packet back to the originator node and in initiating the new route search by the originator node is saved. Thus the overall bandwidth efficiency of MANET is improved by using Surrounding Repair Method. Examples of reactive routing protocols are Ad hoc On-Demand Distance Vector (AODV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA), and Associativity Based Routing (ABR) Ad Hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) AODV belongs to the class of Distance Vector Routing Protocols (DV). In a DV every node knows its neighbours and the costs to reach them. Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) is a reactive routing protocol initiates a route discovery process only when it has data packets to transmit. In AODV, the route discovery is called as on-demand and the route towards the destination node is not always available. A new route maintenance algorithm to avoid route breaks because each intermediate node on an active route detects

6 66 the danger of a link break to an upstream node and reestablishes a new route before a route break. This algorithm is based on AODV (Ad-hoc On-demand Distance Vector routing protocol) is presented in [ABM12]. A routing protocol for Bluetooth scatter nets that customizes the Ad hoc On- Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol by making it power-aware and suitable for scatter nets. It enhances the AODV ooding mechanism by excluding all non-bridge slaves from taking part in the AODV route detection process. In addition to that it improves the AODV route discovery phase by considering the hop count, the predicated node s power and the standard traffic intensity for each node as metrics for best route selection. By removing HELLO packets, the protocol reduces the control packets overhead and the power consumption in network devices. Simulation results show that the implemented protocol achieved considerable improvements over other enhanced AODV protocols by increasing the data delivery ratio by 10.78%, reducing the average end-to-end delay by 8.11%, and reducing the average energy utilization by 7.92%. AODV is composed of three mechanisms: Route Discovery process, Route message generation and Route maintenance. The significant feature of AODV is whenever a route is available from source to destination; it does not append any overhead to the packets. On the other hand, route discovery process is only initiated when routes are not used and/or they expired and accordingly useless. This approach reduces the property of stale routes as well as the need for route maintenance for idle routes. Another unique feature of AODV is its capability to offer unicast, multicast and broadcast communication. AODV use broadcast route discovery algorithm and then the unicast route reply message AODV Route Discovery Process During a route detection process, the source node broadcast a query packet to its neighbors. If any of the neighboring nodes has a route to the destination; it replies with a route reply packet; otherwise, it rebroadcast the route query packet. Finally, some query packets attain the destination. Figure 1 shows the route discovery process from source node no.1 to destination node no.10. At that time, a reply packet is created and transmitted tracing back the route traversed by the query packet as shown in Figure 4.1.

7 67 Figure 4.1: AODV Route Discovery Process AODV Route Message Generation During the route maintenance process if a link break occurs while the route is active, the node upstream (i.e. node 4) of the break propagates a route error (RERR) message to the source node to inform it of the now unreachable destinations [ASC05]. The RERR message finally ends up in source node no.1. On receipt of the RERR message, node 1 will create a new RREQ message as shown in Figure 4.2. Figure 4.2: AODV Route Error Message Generation AODV Route Maintenance Process Finally, if node 2 already has a route to node 10, it will create a RREP message, as indicated in Figure 3.3. Otherwise, it will re-broadcast the RREQ from source node 1 to destination node 10 as shown in Figure 4.3.

8 68 Figure 4.3: AODV Route Maintenance Process 4.5. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) The Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is one of the purest examples of an ondemand routing protocol that is based on the concept of source routing [JKP12]. It is a routing protocol for wireless mesh networks similar to AODV. It forms a route ondemand when a transmitting node desires one. It uses source routing instead of relying on the routing table at each transitional device. Determining source routes require collecting the address of each device between the source and destination during path discovery. The collected information is cached by nodes handling the route discovery packets. The known paths are used to route packets. To realize source routing, the routed packets contain the address of each device the packet will pass through. This results in high overhead for elongated paths or large addresses, like IPv6. To avoid using source routing, DSR allows a flow id option in which the packets are forwarded on a hop-by-hop basis. Hence it is designed specially for use in multihop ad hoc networks. A mobile node allows the network to be completely self organized and self-configuring and does not need any existing network infrastructure or administration. DSR is composed of the two mechanisms of Route Discovery and Route Maintenance. They work altogether to allow nodes to determine and maintain routes to arbitrary destinations in the network. DSR has a unique advantage by the desirable quality of source routing. As the route is the component of the packet itself, routing loops, either short lived or long lived, cannot be formed as they can be immediately detected and eliminated. This property allows the protocol to a variety of useful optimizations.

9 69 DSR is a protocol for routing packets between wireless mobile hosts in an ad hoc network. Unlike other routing protocols using distance vector or link state algorithms, this protocol uses dynamic source routing which adapts quickly to routing changes when the movement of hosts is frequent. And requires little or no overhead during periods in which hosts move less frequently. Based on outcome from a packet-level simulation of mobile hosts operating in an ad-hoc network, the protocols perform well over a range of environmental conditions such as host density and progress rates. For the highest rates of host movement simulated, the overhead of the protocol is rather low, falling to just 1% of total data packets transmitted for moderate movement rates in a network of 24 mobile nodes. In all cases, the disparity in length between the routes used and the optimal route length is negligible. In most cases, route length is on average within a factor of 1.02 optimal as presented by [DAD12] Route Discovery For route discovery, the source node starts by broadcasting a Route Request packet that can be received by all neighbor nodes within its wireless communication range. The Route Request consists of the destination host address, referred to as the goal of the route discovery, the source address, a route confirmation field and a unique identification number as shown in Figure 4.4. Figure 4.4: Building of the Record during Route Discovery in DSR At the end, the source node should receive a Route Reply Packet with a list of network nodes through which it should transmit the data packets [JKP12]. During the route

10 70 detection process, the route confirmation field is used to contain the series of hops which already taken. Initially, all senders initiate the route record as a list of single node containing itself. The next transitional node attaches itself to the route record list and so on. Every route request packet also consists of a unique identification number called as request_id which is a simple counter increased whenever a new route request packet is being sent by source node. All route request packet can be exclusively identified through its initiator's address and request_id. When a node receives a route request packet, it processes the request in the given order. This will make sure that no loops occur during transmit of the packets. If the pair < source node address, request_id > is found in the list of recent Route request, the packet is dismissed. If the host's address is already listed in the request route record, the packet is also dismissed. This indicates removal of same request that arrive by using a loop. If the destination address in the route request matches the host address, the route record field depicts the route through which the request has reached this host from the source node. A route reply packet is reverted to the source node with a copy of this route. Otherwise, add this node's address to the route record field and re-broadcast this packet. A route reply is originated in case either the request packet reaches the target node or it reaches an intermediate node which has an active route to the target in its route cache. The sequence of hops was considered in the route record field. If the target node generates the route replies, it just takes the route record field of the route request and puts it into the route reply. But if it is an intermediate node, then the cached route is attached to the route record and then the route reply is generated as shown in Figure 4.5. Sending back route replies can be processed with two different ways: DSR may use symmetric links in which the node generating the route reply just uses the reverse route of the route record. With asymmetric links, the node initiates its own route discovery process and revert the route reply on the new route request.

11 71 Figure 4.5: Propagation of the Route Reply in DSR Route Maintenance Route maintenance is done by two different processes: Hop-by-hop acknowledgement. End-to-end acknowledgement. Hop-by-hop acknowledgement is the process at the data link layer which allows an early detection and re-transmission of packets which are lost [JOM13]. If a fatal communication error is determined by the data link layer, a route error packet is reverted to the sender of the packet. This route error packet has the address of the node detecting the error and the host s address which was trying to transmit the packet. Whenever a node receives a route error packet, the hop is isolated from the route cache and all routes containing this hop are truncated. End to-end acknowledgement is used when wireless transmission between two hosts does not process equally well in both directions. In this case, acknowledgements or replies on the transport layer used to indicate the status of the route from one host to another. As long as the route exists, the two end nodes are able to communicate and route maintenance is possible. However, in end-to-end acknowledgement it is not possible to find out the hop which has been in error.

12 Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) The Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is extremely adaptive, competent and scalable distributed routing algorithm based on the concept of link reversal [WHX05]. It is an algorithm for routing data across Wireless Mesh Networks or Mobile ad hoc networks. The TORA attempts to achieve a high degree of scalability with a "flat", non-hierarchical routing algorithm. In this operation the algorithm tries to suppress to the extent the generation of far-reaching control message propagation. TORA builds and maintains a Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) rooted to destination. No two nodes have the same height. Information may flow from nodes with the higher heights to the nodes with lesser heights. Information can therefore be considered as a fluid that may flow only downward. By maintaining a group of totally planned heights, TORA achieves loop-free multipath routing, as information cannot 'flow upward' and so cross back on itself. TORA is proposed for highly dynamic, multi-hop wireless networks. It is sourceinitiated on-demand routing protocol and has a unique feature of maintaining multiple routes to the destination so that there will be no reaction for any topological changes. The protocol starts reacting only when all routes to the destination are lost. In the occasion of the partition of the network, the protocol detects the partition and erases all invalid routes. The protocol has three basic functions: Route creation, Route maintenance and Route erasure Route Creation Initially, all nodes start off with a null height and links between the nodes are not assigned. When a node requires a route to a destination node, it initiates route construction by flooding out query packets in search for possible routes to the destination node. The query packet reaches either a node that has a route or the destination itself. The link is set as directed when a node receives an update packet. This is explained in the below figure 4.6. The setting of directional links eventually reaches the node which requires the route and provides it with at least a route to the destination [SMP12].

13 73 (a)the source broadcasts a query. (b)the destination returns an update packet. (c)the update packet is broadcast back through the network, and node heights are set. (d)the network converges with a directed graph Figure 4.6: Route Creation of TORA Route Maintenance The availability of multiple paths is a result of how TORA models the entire network as a directed acyclic graph (DAG) rooted to the destination node. All nodes have a height associated with it. The links between nodes flow from higher height to a lower height. The collection of links created between nodes forms the DAG and ultimately all nodes will have a route to the destination node. For all possible destinations, a separate DAG requests are constructed. Route maintenance occurs when a node loses its outgoing links. During the detection of a link failure, the node propagates an update packet which reverses the links to all its neighboring nodes. Transitional nodes that collect the update packet then reverse the links of their neighboring nodes. Links are upturned only for neighboring nodes that do not have any out-going links and not performed link reversal recently. The link reversal needs to be continual until each node has at least one out-going link. The whole process ensures that the DAG is maintained such that all nodes have routes to the destination node. In TORA, the route maintenance function is the main problem as this produces a large amount of routing overhead. It causes the network to be congested thus preventing data packets from reaching their destinations.

14 Route Erasure In the event that a node in a network partition is without a route to the destination node, route erasure is initiated. The discovery of a network partition is undertaken by the node that first initiated the route maintenance. During route maintenance, the node sends out update packets to reverse links to all its neighboring nodes and attempts to find a route to the destination node. It is capable to determine the presence of a network partition if a similar update packet is sent back to it by another node. This means that every node in the current network partition cannot find a route and are trying to find a route through the source node. Next the Route erasure is performed by the node by flooding clear packets all over the network. On receipt of a clear packet, the node sets the links to its neighbors as unassigned. In due course, these clear packets circulate through the network and erase all routes to that unreachable destination Associativity-Based Routing (ABR) ABR is a source initiated on-demand routing protocol. It is free from loops, deadlock and packet duplicates. It only maintain routes for sources that actually desire routes. This protocol is with a metric called the degree of organization strength. This associativity is an assessment of a node s connectivity relationship with its neighbors over time as well as space. All nodes in the network sporadically transmit a beacon to its neighbors signifying its occurrence. ABR is a standardized routing protocol for the reason that it provides the same importance to all nodes which participate in routing. A node caches an entry for each neighbor which records the number of beacons received. However, ABR does not employ route re-construction based on alternate route information stored in intermediate nodes (thereby avoiding stale routes). In addition, routing decisions are performed at the destination and only the best route will be selected and used while all other possible routes remain passive. Its distinct feature is the use of associativity ticks which is required to form routes based on the stability of nodes. There is no use to form a route using a node which will be moving out of the topology and thus making the route to be broken. ABR has three modes of operation namely route discovery, route reconstruction and route deletion.

15 ABR Route Discovery Phase The route discovery phase uses broadcast query BQ messages and awaits reply BQ_REPLY messages [SFA06]. Each BQ message has a uniquely identifier. A source node desiring a route to destination broadcasts the network with BQ messages. An intermediate node that receives the query first checks if they have processed the packet: if yes query packet will be discarded, otherwise check if the node is the destination. If not the intermediate nodes append the following information before broadcasting the BQ message: its address the associativity ticks the route relaying load, the link propagation delay The hop counts information. The next intermediate node will then erase its upstream neighbor's associativity ticks and retain only those concerns with itself and its upstream neighbor. In this manner, the query packet reaching the destination will only contain: the intermediate mobile nodes address mobile nodes associativity ticks mobile nodes relaying loads route forwarding delay Hop count. After receiving first BQ packet the destination node will choose the best route based on stability and quality-of service QoS. Given a set of possible routes from source to destination node, if a route consists of mobile hosts having high associativity ticks then that route will be chosen by the destination in favor of other existing shorter-hop routes. The selected route is likely to be long-lived due to the propriety of associativity. The destination node responds by sending a BQ_REPLY message back to source node via the route selected. Intermediate nodes that receive the BQ_REPLY message validate their

16 76 routes. Other routes are marked as inactive. This mechanism prevents duplication of messages ABR Route Reconstruction Phase If any one of the source, destination or intermediate nodes moves the route reconstruction operation starts. Route reconstruction phase includes Partial route discovery Invalid route deletion Valid route updates New route discovery Intermediate Nodes Moves When an intermediate node along an existing route moves out of range, the immediate downstream node sends a route notification RN message toward the destination. Nodes along the path to destination that receive a route notification message RN delete this route entry. The immediate upstream node initiates a local query LQ to discover a new, partial route as shown in figure 4.7. Figure 4.7: Route Maintenance when Intermediate Nodes Move

17 77 LQ messages are similar to BQ messages but use a hope count field to limit their range of action. Once the destination receives several LQ messages it chooses the best route based on stability and QoS and responds by sending an LQ_REPLY. If the upstream node does not receive an LQ_REPLY after a certain amount of time LQ_TIMEOUT, it responds by sending its own RN message to its immediate upstream node [SMB11]. The new upstream node removes the invalid route and initiates anew LQ messages process. The LQ process continues till it reaches halfway point to the source node then is aborted and a new BQ message is initiated Source Node Moves When source node moves, it will cause a route reconstruction similar with route initialization that is BQ and BQ-REPLAY messages. Concurrent node movements may generate route reconstruction conflicts. ABR resolves the multiple route reconstruction messages by assuring that only one ultimately succeeds. Each LQ process is tagged with a sequence number so that earlier LQ process is terminated when a new one is invoked. For example if a node processing LQ messages hears a new BQ for the same connection then the LQ process is terminated Destination Node Moves When the destination node moves, its immediate upstream node (known as the pivoting node) will erase his route [SMB11]. It then sends a localized query LQ messages to localize the destination node. H is the hop count from the upstream node to the destination node. If the destination node receives LQs messages it will select the best route and send a LQ_REPLAY. If LQ_TIMEOUT period is reached and the destination node hasn't received LQ, the next upstream will became the pivoting node. The back track process continues until the new pivoting node will be half away from the destination. If no partial route is observed the pivoting route will send a route notification RN back to the source. The source will initiate a new route discovery process BQ that is the worst situation ABR Route Deletion Phase Route deletion phase is used when a source no longer requires a route and it consists of a route delete RD broadcast from source node to all intermediate nodes. The

18 78 full broadcast is used because the source may be not aware about new routes after many reconstruction phases. Till this the above four reactive routing protocols are described and selected three protocols AODV, DSR & TORA to study their performance metrics (Packet Delivery Ratio, End to End delay, Throughput, Route Overhead & Energy Consumption) under various simulation parameter ( Simulation Time, Packet Size & mobility) with NS2 simulator. Their analysations are described in the chapter 6& Attacks in MANETs A survey on attacks and countermeasures in MANET is done. The counter measures are features that reduce or eliminate security vulnerabilities and attacks [HNG08]. First, an overview of attacks is given according to the protocol stacks, security attributes and mechanisms. These attacks on MANETs challenge the mobile infrastructure in which nodes can join and leave easily with dynamics requests without a static path of routing. Schematics of various attacks are shown in table 4.2. Table 4.2: Security Attacks on Protocol Stacks Layer Application layer Transport layer Network layer Data link layer Physical layer Multi-layer attacks Repudiation, data corruption Attacks SYN flooding, Session hijacking. Wormhole, blackhole, resource consumption, flooding, location disclosure attacks Traffic analysis, monitoring, disruption MAC (802.11), WEP weakness Jamming, eavesdropping DoS, replay, man-in-the-middle 4.9. Classification of Attacks The attacks can be categorized on the basis of the source i.e. Internal or External, and on the basis of performance i.e. Passive or Active attack. This classification is vital

19 79 because the attacker can abuse the network either as internal, external as well as active or passive attack against the network [RUG10] External and Internal Attack External attackers are mainly outside the networks who want to get access to the network and once they get access to the network they start sending false packets, denial of service in order to interrupt the performance of the whole network as shown in Figure 4.8 (a). This attack is same as that are made against wired network. These attacks can be prohibited by implementing security measures such as firewall, where the access of illegal person to the network can be mitigated. While in internal attack the attacker wants to have normal access to the network as well as participate in the normal activities of the network as shown in Figure 4.8 (b). The attacker gain access in the network as new node either by compromising a current node in the network or by malicious impersonation and start its malicious behavior. Internal attacks are more severe when compared with outside attacks since the insider knows valuable and undisclosed information, and possess privileged access rights. Mobile Ad hoc Network Mobile Ad hoc Network Attacker Attacker (a) (b) Figure 4.8: External and Internal Attacks in MANETs Active and Passive Attack The attacks in MANET can roughly be classified into two major categories, namely passive and active attacks, according to the attack means. In a passive attack data is

20 80 exchanged in the network without disrupting the operation of the communications. While an active attack interrupts the information, modifies or fabricates, thereby disrupting the normal functionality of a MANET. In active attack the attacker disrupts the performance of the network. It steals important information and tries to destroy the data during the exchange in the network. Active attacks can be of internal or external attack. The active attacks are destined to destroy the performance of network in such case the active attack act as internal node in the network as shown in Figure 4.9 (a). Being an active part of the network it is easy for the node to exploit and hijack any internal node to use it to introduce bogus packets injection or denial of service. In this attack, the attacker is in strong position where he can modify, fabricate and replays the massages. Examples of active attacks include congestion, impersonating, alteration, denial of service (DoS), and message reply. Mobile Ad hoc Network Mobile Ad hoc Network Attacker Attacker (a) (b) Figure 4.9: Active and Passive Attack in MANETs Attackers in passive attacks do not disrupt the normal operations of the network. In Passive attack, the attacker pay attention to network in order to acquire information about what is going on in the network? It listens to the network to know and understand how the nodes are communicating with each other, how they are located in the network as shown in Figure 4.9 (b). Before the attacker launch an attack in opposition to the network, the attacker has adequate information about the network that it can easily hijack and inject attack in the network. Examples of passive attacks are eavesdropping, traffic analysis and monitoring.

21 Black Hole Attacks In networking, black holes refer to places in the network where incoming traffic is silently discarded (or "dropped"), without informing the source that the data did not reach its destination. These black hole nodes are invisible and can only be detected by monitoring the traffic lost. A Black hole attack is the active DoS attacks likely in MANETs. In this attack, a malicious node sends a false RREP packet to a source node in order to pose itself as a destination node or an immediate neighbor to the actual destination node. Due to this, the source node would forward its entire data packets to the malicious node, which originally was planned for the real destination. The malicious node, eventually may never forward any of the data packets to the real destination. As a result, therefore, the source and the destination nodes became unable to communicate with each other. Moreover in the event of a black hole attack, malicious nodes use its routing protocol in order to advertise itself of having the shortest path to the destination node or to the packet it wants to interrupt. This node advertises its availability of fresh routes irrespective of checking its routing table. In this way the attacker node will always have the availability in replying to the route request and thus interrupt the data packet and hold it. In protocol based on flooding, the malicious node reply is received by the requesting node before the reception of reply from the actual node; hence a malicious and forged path is created. When this path is established, it is up to the node whether to drop all the packets or forward it to the unknown address [PAP09]. A black hole has two properties. First, the node exploit the ad hoc routing protocol, such as AODV, to promote itself as having a valid route to a destination node, even if the route is false, with the intention of interrupting the packets. Second, the node consumes the interrupted packets. Black hole attacks in AODV protocol routing level can be classified into two categories -- RREQ Blackhole attack and RREP Black-hole attack Black Hole Attack Caused by RREQ An attacker can send fake RREQ messages to form black hole attack as shown in Figure In RREQ Black-hole attack, the attacker pretends to retransmit a RREQ

22 82 message with a non-existent node address. A l s o o ther nodes will update their route to pass by the non-existent node to the destination node. As a result, the original route will be broken down and the attacker can generate Black hole attack by faked RREQ message as follows [NJM10]: Set the type field to RREQ (1). The originating node s IP address is set as originator IP address. The destination node s IP address is set as destination IP address. Set the source IP address (in the IP header) to a non-existent IP address (Black hole). Raise the source sequence number by at least one, or decrease the hop count to 1. A Black hole attack is formed by the attacker between the source node and the destination node by faked RREQ message. Figure 4.10: Black Hole is formed by fake RREQ Black Hole Attack Caused by RREP RREP message is generated by the attacker to form Black hole as follows: Set the type field to RREP (2); Set the hop count field to 1;

23 83 Originator IP address is set as the originating node of the route and the destination IP address as the destination node of the route; raise the destination sequence number by at least one; Set the source IP address (in the IP header) to a non-existent IP address (Black-hole). The faked RREP message is unicast by the attacker to the originating node as shown in Figure When originating node receives the faked RREP message, it updates its route to destination node through the non-existent node. Then RREP Blackhole is formed. A reactive routing protocol known as Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing is used for analysis of the effect of the black hole attack when the destination sequence number is changed via simulation. Finally, a new training method is presented for high accuracy detection by updating the training data in every given time intervals and adaptively defining the normal state according to the change in network environment. Figure 4.11: Black Hole is formed by fake RREP. Two types of black hole attacks are described in order to distinguish the kind of black hole attack Internal Black Hole Attack This type of black hole attack has an internal malicious node which fits in between the routes of a given source and destination. This malicious node makes itself an active

24 84 data route element. At this stage it is capable of conducting attack with the start of data transmission [PAP09]. This is an internal attack because the node itself belongs to the data route. Internal attack is more vulnerable to protect against because of difficulty in detecting the internal misbehaving node External Black Hole Attack External attacks physically stay outside the network and deny access to network traffic either by creating congestion in the network or by disrupting the entire network. External attack can turn out to be a kind of internal attack when it takes control of the internal malicious node and controls it to attack other nodes in MANET [PAP09]. External black hole attack can be reviewed as follows 1. Malicious node detects the active route and notes the destination address. 2. Malicious node sends a route reply packet (RREP) including the destination address field spoofed to an unknown address. Hop count value is set to low and the sequence number is set to the highest value. 3. Malicious node sends RREP to the nearest available node which belongs to the active route. This can also be sent directly to the data source node if the route is available. 4. The RREP received by the nearest available node to the malicious node relayed via the established inverse route to the data of source node. 5. The new information received in the route reply allows the source node to update its routing table. 6. New route is selected by source node for selecting data. 7. The malicious node now drops all the data to which it belongs in the route Other Attacks on MANET Attacks on MANETs challenge the mobile infrastructure in which nodes can join and leave easily with dynamics requests without a static path of routing. Schematics of various attacks and a partial list of them are described below [HNG08].

25 Gray-Hole Attack In this kind of attack the attacker misleads the network by agreeing to forward the packets in the network. On receipt of the packets from the neighboring node, the attacker drops the packets. This is a type of active attack. At the beginning the attacker nodes behaves normally and reply true RREP messages to the nodes that started RREQ messages. When the packets are received, it starts dropping the packets and launch Denial of Service (DoS) attack. This malicious behavior of gray-hole attack is dissimilar. It drops packets instead forwarding them in the network. In other gray-hole attacks the attacker node behaves maliciously for the time until the packets are dropped and then switch to their normal behavior. Due to this, it is very difficult for the network to figure out such kind of attack. Gray-hole attack is also named as node misbehaving attack Flooding Attack The flooding attack is easy to implement but the damage is high. This kind of attack can be achieved either by using RREQ or by flooding the data. In RREQ flooding, the attacker floods the RREQ messages in the entire network which takes a lot of network resources by selecting such non-existent IP addresses in the network. By doing so nodes are unable to answer RREP packets to these flooded RREQ. In data flooding the attacker move into the network and set up paths between all the nodes in the network. Once the path is established the attacker injects an immense amount of useless data packets into the network which is directed to all the other nodes of the network. These enormous unwanted data packets in the network block the network. Any node which serves as destination node will be busy all the time by receiving useless and unwanted data all the time Wormhole Attack Wormhole attack is a severe attack in which two attackers placed themselves strategically in the network. The attackers then listen to the network and record the wireless data. The figure 4.12 below shows the two attackers placed themselves in a strong strategic location in the network [HPJ06].

26 86 In wormhole attack, the attacker gets themselves in strong strategic location in the network and they have shortest path between the nodes as shown in the Figure Attacker advertises their path letting the other nodes in the network to know the shortest path for broadcasting their data. The wormhole attacker creates a tunnel in order to record the ongoing communication and traffic at one network position and channels them to another position in the network. Upon creation of direct link between each other in the network, the wormhole attacker receives packets at one end and transmits to the other end of the network. This type of attack is known as out of band wormhole. Attacker Tunnel Attacker Figure 4.12: Wormhole Attack The other type of wormhole attack is known as in band wormhole attack. In this type of attack the attacker builds an overlay tunnel over the existing wireless medium. The wormhole attack is potentially very much harmful and is the most preferred choice for the attacker Jellyfish Attack In jellyfish attack, the attacker attacks the network and introduces unwanted delays in the network. The attacker node first gets access to the network and later it becomes a part of the network. The attacker then introduces the delay in the network by delaying all the packets received. Once the delay is propagated then the packets are released into the network. This enables the attacker to generate high end-to-end delay and considerably affect the performance of the network Selfish Attack In MANETs the nodes perform collaboratively in order to forward packets from one node to another node. When a node refuses to work in collaboration in order to save its

27 87 limited resources then it is termed as a selfish node. This causes network and traffic disruption. The selfish nodes can refuse by advertising either non existing routes among its neighbor nodes or else less fine routes. Saving and preserving its resources is the only concern of this node, while the network and traffic disruption is the side effect of this behavior. The node uses the network when needed and turns back to its silent mode. During this mode, the selfish node is not noticeable to the network. The selfish node can sometimes drop the packets. When the selfish node sees that the packets need a lot of resources, it is no longer interested in the packets. It simply drops the packets and does not forward it to the network Routing Table Overflow Attack Routing Table Overflow attack is usually done against proactive protocols. A nonexistent node data is sent into the network in order to corrupt and degrade the routing tables up gradation. Proactive routing protocols update the route periodically even before they are necessary. This is one of the drawbacks that make proactive protocols vulnerable to the routing table attack. The attacker creates too many routes to nodes that do not exist in the network by using RREQ messages. The attacker sends RREQ messages in the network to non-existent nodes. The nodes under attack results its routing table full and doesn t have any more entry to create new one. In other words, the routing tables of the attacked nodes are flooded with so many route entries [RUG10] Conclusion This chapter presents the descriptions of several routing scheme proposed for mobile ad hoc networks. Based on routing strategy, these are classified into table driven and on demand. A comparison of these categories of routing protocols, highlighting their features and characteristics are presented. The examples of reactive routing protocols such as AODV, DSR, TORA and ABR are focused in detail. The various phases of these protocols are discussed. From this three routing protocols has been chosen to analyze their performance based on various parameters using Ns2 simulator.

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