Efficient Multicast Schemes for Mobile Multiparty Gaming Applications
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1 Efficient Multicast Schemes for Mobile Multiparty Gaming Applications P6-6th semester 2006 Group ComNet Aalborg University 5th April 2006
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3 Institut for elektroniske systemer Fr. Bajers Vej 7 Telefon Titel: Tema: Efficient Multicast Schemes for Mobile Multiparty Gaming Applications Komplekse distribuerede systemer Projektperiode: P6, forårssemestret 2006 Projektgruppe: Gruppe 681 Deltagere: Mads Verwohlt Martin H. Larsen Synopsis: Vejleder: Haibo Wang Hans Peter Schwefel Oplagstal: 5 Sidetal: 29 Bilagsantal og art: 4 Afsluttet den 30. Maj 2006
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5 Institute for Electronic Systems Fr. Bajers Vej 7 Phone Title: Efficient Multicast Schemes for Mobile Multiparty Gaming Applications Theme: Complex distributed systems Project period: P6, spring semester 2006 Project group: Group 681 Group members: Mads Verwohlt Martin H. Larsen Abstract: Supervisor: Haibo Wang Hans Peter Schwefel Number printed: 5 Pages: 29 Appendix: XX Finished May 30th 2006
6 Preface
7 CONTENTS ComNet, AAU Contents 1 Introduction Motivation Introduction Preliminary analysis Multiplayer games MultiplayerGame Network types Multiplayer gametypes sub-conclusion Wireless Communication Introduction to Wireless Communication Bluetooth Bluetooth Core Protocols Wireless LAN Routing Multicast Introduction Multicast Compromise Overview of Multicast Routing Algorithms Multicast Forwarding Experimental parts
8 Group 681 CONTENTS 2.6 Problem statement Problem Delimitation Introduction Project description Delimitation Scenarios Scenario I Scenario II Scenario III Analysis 28 4
9 ComNet, AAU Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation Mobile devices are used for many different applications, each with different requirements. Many of these applications require wireless communication with other devices or the Internet, for example applications used for or file transfer. The demand for faster communication for video-communication and network gaming has raised within the last few years, but while the third-generation mobile communication has provided a solution for the video-communication, the demand for network gaming have not yet been solved.[specify what s not solved!] 1.2 Introduction The overall problem in this project is to investegate different multicast schemes find the the different excisting multicast schemes for the purpose of multiplayer games for mobile devices. 5
10 Group 681 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION Figure 1.1: System overview. This project is including some overall challenges, which includes these: Identify the features of mobile multi-party games. Identify the performence of wireless communications methods. Study which existing multicast schemes will be suitable. Make a test with the purpose of validating the performance of the multicast scheme for mobile gaming. A persistent scenario will be used to solve these challenges. There are many different kinds of multiplayer games, each of these have different features to consider for a mobile device, such as traffic volume, maximum quantity of users, game session length and real-time aspects. These aspects will be used 6
11 1.2. INTRODUCTION ComNet, AAU when choosing the scenario Mobile devices are able to use different wireless communication methods, we will only look at two of them, Bluetooth and WLAN, each with its own avantage and disavantage. The two methods will be examined and tested to determine the level of performance in the chosen scenario. Another challenge is to study which type of existing multicast schemes, regarding multicast group management and multicast stratagies, that will be suitable for a mobile multicast multiplayer gaming environment, and whether it need to be changed to fit the chosen scenario. A test bed will be used as an experimental validation of the performance of the selected multicast scheme for mobile gaming. 7
12 Group 681 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Chapter 2 Preliminary analysis 2.1 Multiplayer games This section will be the basis for chosing a game for the scenario used further in this projekt. First The A small selection of different multiplayer game types will be selected and an evaluation will be made from the projekts point of view, which main parts includs multicasting and wireless communication MultiplayerGame Network types A multiplayer games usually have two approaches to the network type. Multiplayer games can either be server-driven or peer-to-peer. Each with its own advantages and disadvantage regarding multicasting and Wireless communication. Server-Driven Games In a server-driven game, each player communicates only with a overall remote server. The server tracks all the players actions and sends each player the information, he or she needs to know the game state. This is clearly a effectiv method for multicasting since all players has some advantages, each players is only sending and receiving the data it needs, so the network trafik is low. There are also an disadvantage, someone has to provide the server and the bandwidth it uses. As an solusion the developers can allow the 8
13 2.1. MULTIPLAYER GAMES ComNet, AAU users to setup its own server on the Internet.(Halflife Counter Strike works this way.) Peer-to-Peer Games In a peer-to-peer game, no single players machine is considered server instead, all players machines talk directly to all other players machines. Each machine keeps track of the overall game state, with checksums passed to ensure that they remain in sync. Peer-to-peer games will disadvntage too, first, in a peer-to-peer game, the amount of data that needs to be exchanged increases exponentially when the number of players increases. This solution uses alot of bandwidth when there are more than 3-4 players. So a peer-topeer game should be limited to 8 or fewer players.[1] TABEL(p2p vs server) Multiplayer gametypes INTRODUCTION MISSING Round robin games In a round-robin game each player takes turn one after another. Each player generally takes some time to act, witch will result in multisecond latency. Simulation games Simultaneous-movement games A simultaneous-movement is a game in which all players decides what to do during the his turn, then all players orders is revealed simultaneously. The server will wait for receiving all the players orders, and then resolves the orders and sends the new game state to all player. 9
14 Group 681 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Act whenever??? games Slow update games This is a game where each player having a certain position. The players can give orders to the server to change the position, which is a slowly. This is an server-client type of game, where players can play the game in many short sessions, rather than to play a single long session. Shared solitaire games In a shared solitaire game, each player plays the same single-player game. Each player plays the game with the purpose of getting the highest score within the time limit, after which the game ends. The player who, gets the highest score is considered the winner sub-conclusion 2.2 Wireless Communication Introduction to Wireless Communication Bluetooth introduction This section is based on [2]. Bluetooth operates on 79 channels in the 2.4 GHz band, with 1 MHz of carrier spacing. Each device performs frequency hopping with hops/second. An important feature in the context of Bluetooth is piconet. A piconet is a collection of Bluetooth devices, which are synchronized to the same hopping frequency. One device in the piconet has to act as a master, and the other devices have to act as slaves. The master sets the hopping pattern in the piconet. If a device wants to be active in the piconet, it has to synchronize to this hopping pattern. Beside active, a device can be parked, and in standby. In parked mode the device can be activated within a few milliseconds. Devices in standby mode cannot be activated by the 10
15 2.2. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION ComNet, AAU piconet, but only by the device itself. When a device is assigned to a piconet it is given a 3 bit active member address (AMA), this gives a total of 7 slave devices and one master device in a piconet. All parked devices use an 8 bit parked member address (PMA). The Bluetooth protocol stack can be divided into a core and a profile specification 2.1. The core specifies the protocols from physical layer to the data link control, including management functions. Profile specifications describe the many protocols and functions needed to adapt the Bluetooth technology to the different purposes. In next section the Bluetooth Core protocols will be described. Figure 2.1: Bluetooth protocol stack Bluetooth Core Protocols The Bluetooth Core Protocol concerns following elements: Radio Layer: Specification of the air interface, i.e. frequencies, modulation, and transmit power. Baseband Layer: Description of basic connection establishment, packet formats, timing and basic QoS parameters. 11
16 Group 681 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Link Manager Protocol: Link set-up and management between devices including security functions and parameter negation. Logical link control and adaptional protocol (L2CAP): Adaptation of higher layers to the baseband (connectionless and connection-oriented services). Service Discovery Protocol: Device discovery in close proximity plus query of service characteristic. On top of L2CAP is the cable replacement protocol RFCOMM, which emulates a serial connection following the RS-232 standards. Radio Layer Bluetooth operates in 79 channels in the 2.4 GHz band, with 1 MHz carrier spacing. Each Bluetooth device performs its own random frequency hopping with 1600 hops/s. The time between two hops is called a slot, which has an interval of 625 microseconds. Bluetooth receivers and transmitters are available in three powerclasses: Power class 1: Power is between 1mW and 100 mw, and range is 100 metres without obstacles. Power class 2: Power is max. 2.5 mw, and min. is 0.25 mw. Nominal power is 1 mw. Range is 10 meters without obstacles. Power class 3: Maximum power is 1 mw, and range is 10 cm. Baseband layer The baseband layer has a number of important functions, such as defining the frequency hopping, physical links and many packet formats. The baseband layer determines the frequency selection from the master device, and each slave device participating in the piconet hops at the same time, to the same frequency. If a master sends data at f k the slave may answer at f k+1. 12
17 2.2. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION ComNet, AAU Figure 2.2: Frequency selection during data transmission of 1, 3 and 5 slot packets [2]. The upper part of figure 2.2 shows a 1 slot packet, meaning that the data transmission uses one 625 micro second slot. In each of these slots a device in the piconet may transmit data. It is also possible to send packets in lasting 3 and 5 slots for higher data rates. If a packet of three or five slot is sent, the radio transmitter remains in the same frequency, and after receiving the devices returns to the frequency required for its hopping sequence. Slaves which not are participating in the transmission will continue with the hopping sequence so all devices can stay syncronized. The components of the Bluetooth packet at baseband layer is shown in figure 2.3. The packet consists of the following three fields: Figure 2.3: The figure shows the Baseband packet format, which consist of an acces code, packet header and payload.[2] Acces code: This field is used for synchronization of timing, and piconet 13
18 Group 681 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS identification. The access code consists of a 4 bit preamble, a 64 bit synchronization field and a 4 bit trailer. Packet header This field contains the features: address, packet type, flow and error control, and checksum. First field, Active Member Address (AMA) is the address of the slave, if a master sends data to a slave, is this field interpreted as the address of the slave, and if a slave wants to send data to a master, the field represents the field the address of the sender. The address 0 i, and only ones used for broadcast communication from the master to all slaves. The 4 bit type field determines the type of the packet. The different types of packets a listed in table 2.1. Packets can carry control, asynchronous or synchronous data. One flow mechanism for asynchronous traffic, utilizes the 1-bit flow field. If a packet is received with flow equal to zero, all asynchronous traffic must stop, and as soon a packet with flow equal to 1 is received the transmission can resume. If any acknowledgement of packets is required, Bluetooth sends this in the slot after the data packet has been received. The packet header is also protected by a 1/3 rate error correction, this means that the header is sent three times because it valuable link information and should survive bit errors. The 18 bit header therefore requires 54 bit in the packet. Payload: The payload can be up to 343 bytes dependent of the structure and type of link of the packet. 14
19 2.2. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION ComNet, AAU Type Payload (Byte) User payload FEC CRC Symmetric max rate (kbit/s) Asymmetric forward Max DM /3 Yes DH no Yes DM /3 Yes DH no Yes DM /3 Yes DH no Yes AUX no No HV1 na 10 1/3 No 64.0 na na HV2 na 20 2/3 No 64.0 na na HV3 na 30 no No 64.0 na na DV 1 D 10+ 2/3D No 64.0 na na Table 2.1: Bluetooth baseband data rules. [2] Bluetooth offers two types of links, one synchronous connection-oriented link, and an asynchronous connectionless link. They will both be described here: Synchronous connection-oriented link (SCO): Normal telephone connection requires a symmetrical circuit switched, point-to-point connections, for this type of link, the master reserves two following slots (one for forward, and one for return) in fixed intervals. One master can support up to three simultaneous SCO links the same slave, or to different slaves, a slave supports up to two links from different masters, of up to three links from a single master. When using a SCO link, three different types of single slot packets can be used. HV1, HV2 and HV3, (see table 2.1). Each of these SCO links carries voice at 64 bit. Asynchronous connectionless link (ACL): Data application typically requires symmetrical or asymmetrical packet-switched transfer. The master in the piconet uses a pilling scheme, were the slaves only may answer if it has been addressed in the previous slot. Only one ACL link may exist between a master and a slave. Data using ACL may consist of 1, 3 or 5 slots packets. These data can additionally be protected by using a 2/3 FEC scheme. This may help carrying data in noisy environments, with high error rates. But the overhead produced by FEC might be too 15
20 Group 681 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS high, therefore Bluetooth offers a fast automatic repeat request, named ARQ, which secures reliable transmission. Figure 2.4 illustrates an example transmission between one master and two slaves. The master uses the even slots, and the odd slots are reserved for the slaves. In this example every sixth slot is used for a SCO (ex. f 0 ) transmission between the master and slave one. The ACL link provided uses a single (ex. (f 4 ) slot or multiple (ex. f 1 4) and provide an asymmetric transmission. Figure 2.4: Example data transmission.[2] Bluetooth offers a high level of robustness. This is based on several technologies. Bluetooth s 1/3 FEC simply sends three copies of each bit and then makes a majority decision. 2/3 FEC, can detect all double errors. Link Manager Protocol The link manager protocol (LMP) manages a number of various aspects of the radio links between a master and slave. LMP manages the baseband functionality, but higher layers can still directly access the baseband. LMP cover the following functions: Authentication, pairing and encryption. Synchronization Capability negotiation Quality of service negotiation Power control 16
21 2.2. WIRELESS COMMUNICATION ComNet, AAU Link supervision State and transmission mode change L2CAP L2CAP (Logical link control and adaption protocol) is a data link control protocol on top of the baseband layer, which offers logical connections between devices. The L2CAP is only available for ACL packets (SCO packets have to use the baseband layer directly) L2CAP provides three types of logical channels: Connectionless: These one-way traffic is usually used for broadcasts. Connection-oriented: Each channel of this type is bi-directional and supports QoS in each direction. Signaling: This is only used for exchanging signalling messages between L2CAP layers. The L2CAP layer also provides segmentation. The layer accepts packets up to 64 Kbytes, but a DH5 packet for example only carries a packet of 339 bytes payload. Therefore the packet has to be chopped. SDP The service device protocol defines the discovery of new services provided in an ad-hoc fashion. If a device wants to offer a form of service has to implement a SDP server. Bluetooth PAN A PAN (Personal Area Network) allows a Bluetooth device to join a piconet and access LAN resources via a BNAP (Bluetooth Network Access Point). PAN profile defines three device roles: 17 Bluetooth Network Access Point: As a BNAP, a Bluetooth device provides access for up to seven active PANUs (Personal Area Network users) to access
22 Group 681 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS LAN. By default, the device which initiates the connection becomes master of the piconet. Therefore in theory the access point only have to initiate all connections. But that does not work in practice because the access point does not know which devices actually want to connect, therefore it can not initiate connections. Instead the LAN access point allows devices to connect to it, but on that condition that the device will accept a master-slave switch. Therefore the LAN access point can become master and efficiently manage its bandwidth. [3]. Group ad-hoc Network: As a GN, a Bluetooth device interconnects up to seven active PANUs in a piconet. PAN User: As a PANU a device can join a piconet via a BNAP. In a PAN packets are encapsulated using BNEP (Bluetooth Network Encapsulation Protocol). This makes it more bandwidth efficient and faster than LAN Access Profile which requires an establishment of a point-to-point link for each connection between two Bluetooth devices Wireless LAN The primary goal of the IEEE standard is to offer a simple and robust WLAN which offers time-bounded and asynchronous services. The MAC layer should be able to operate with different physical layers, each with different characteristics. An additional feature of the WLAN should include the support of power management to save battery power. The 2.4 GHz was chosen for the first standard, since it is available in most countries. The first standard was 1 Mbit/s and 2 Mbit/s optional. 2.3 Routing 2.4 Multicast Introduction Multicast communication gives an ability to open a UDP (User Datagram Protocol) socket and send a packet of data once and deliver this packet to many receivers. 18
23 2.4. MULTICAST ComNet, AAU Instead of sending N packets to N receivers, one multicast packet can be send and received by all N. A special range of IP addresses is assigned by IANA (The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority) to create a logical group of receivers. The group addresses will fall in the range of to [4]. By using this address the application programmer has the ability to send one or a stream of packets to this destination address and expect the network to deliver a copy of each packet to each receiver in the group. Multicast communication relies on additional functionality in the network to build a multicast forwarding tree between the sender and all the receivers in the group. The source is located at the root of the tree. From the root a packet stream flows up the different branches. At each branch in the tree the network receives an incoming packet, and copies it to each of the outgoing branches. Picture The functionality necessary to build and maintain the multicast trees on the internet is slowly being deployed. This means that the functionality is being hard- and software implemented in switches and routers as well as in operating systems and applications Multicast Compromise Multicast offers a great deal of power. The ability for one host to send one packet and have it received by many receivers is powerful. But also the power in multicast is its scalability. Applications which has to deliver data to a larger number of receivers, unicast fails quickly [5]. Multicast scalability is a great feature, but the benefits are not without any costs. The compromise is complexity. The price comes to those who deploys multicast in the network and the application writers. The complexity with multicast comes from the fact that that it is only a delivery mechanism. At the transport layer, multicast only works with UDP not with TCP. UDP does not offer congestion control and does not have reliable delivery. The problem with relible delivery and congestion control in multicast can be found in its complexity. Creating and managing all the variables and timers becomes rapidly a heavy burden. If there is more than one receiver, example , they could not all have different sending rate if you want to use multicast. Also there is no one to deal with acknowledgement packets, and resend lost packets. 19
24 Group 681 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Overview of Multicast Routing Algorithms The data transmitted needs to be transferred from the sender to all the receivers. A spanning tree [6] has been considered one of the most efficient methods to perform data transmissions, since it minimizes duplications of data packets in the network. Messages are duplicated only when the tree branches, this prevents data loops. An efficient multicast routing algorithm will aim to build a Minimal Spanning Tree [7]. The type of tree to be used depends on how the receivers are distributed with high density or low density. Numbers of receivers does not matter. The receivers might too have some set of requirements like costs and delay which can be tolerated. Different types of trees to handle such special cases will be described here. Source Tree Source tree algorithms (also known as shortest path tree) builds a separate tree for each source 2.5. Reverse Shortest Paths (RSP) connects each receiver to the source. This is efficient for high data rate sources. It provides minimal delay for the cost expense. Whenever a source tree is used, a network with a high number of groups and each group having a larger number of sources, can stress the storage capability of the routers. Source trees consume more bandwidth for each individual multicast group. But their load is more evenly distributed than center based trees. [7] Figure 2.5: Host A Shortest Path Tree (Picture will be changed) [4]. 20
25 2.4. MULTICAST ComNet, AAU Shared Tree Shared tree algorithm builds a single tree to be used by all the sources. The data flow in the tree can be one way, or bi-directional. This is efficient for low rate sources and is efficient in the amount of information that needs to be maintained at each router. Shared trees use a single location in the network called core or the Rendezvous Point (RP) to which all packets from the sources are sent and from which packets are sent to all receivers. The path from a certain receiver to the source may be longer which may result in a delay. This can be a disadvantage for applications which relay on a low delay. The core is a potential bottleneck for data transmissions. The selection of the node to act as core is critical to performance of the protocol. The core can be selected from following: [7] Random Router (not necessarily a member of the group). Random Member. Topological Center for the entire network Topological Center of the multicast group (not necessarily member of the group) Topological center of the multicast group (member of the group) Random tree node (Only nodes belonging to the current multicast tree) Tree Center (Only nodes belonging to the center of the current tree) Figure 2.6: Shared Distribution Tree (Picture will be changed) [4]. 21
26 Group 681 CHAPTER 2. PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS Multicast Forwarding In a unicast routing environment, traffic is routed through the network along a single path, from source to destination. The router does not really care about the source address, but only destination and how to forward the data. The router scans through its routing table, and forwards a single copy of the packet out the correct interface. In multicast routing, the source sends traffic to a group of host, represented by the multicast group address. Therefore the router must determine which direction is upstream, (towards the source) and which is downstream. If there are multiple downstream paths the router replicates the packet and forwards the traffic down the appropriate downstream paths. This concept of forwarding multicast traffic away from the source, rather than to the receiver is called reversed path forwarding. [4] Reverse path forwarding Reverse Path Forwarding is utilized to build source-specific forwarding paths (SPT, shortest path tree), amongst which datagram s can flow more efficiently. Source specific multicast makes immediate use of this. Any source multicast usually switches from a centralized tree to the SPT on certain predefined conditions and for each source individually. This functionality is achieved by issuing source-specific joins towards the source, using the source address to look up a unicast routing table entry. This continues router by router until the source is reached. The source and the routers in between now start forwarding the traffic towards the direction the original join came from. The result is that the traffic is forwarded along the reverse path from the source back to the listener. While with symmetric routing, the reverse path is the same as the forward path, this is not necessarily true with asymmetric routing. Because the Internet is routed asymmetrically, the paths show significant differences quite often.[4] 22
27 2.5. EXPERIMENTAL PARTS ComNet, AAU 2.5 Experimental parts 2.6 Problem statement Which multicast-scheme is best suited for MO-FPS games, considering packet error rate, delay and jitter in a wireless multicast environment 23
28 Group 681 CHAPTER 3. PROBLEM DELIMITATION Chapter 3 Problem Delimitation 3.1 Introduction The following chapter includes tree sections. First, an overall project description, second, the Delimitation of study, so secure the project development will stay within the limits of the problem statement and third the scenarios with will be used in the following chapter. 3.2 Project description The Preliminary analysis includes the information needed to start the main part of the project, witch is the analysis of different multicast schemes, and it ends up with a problem statement in section 2.6 witch is the basis for the rest of the project. The present starting point is the overall scenario on figure 1.1, it shows that the system will be based on a central server system with direct access to the central multicast router. The central multicast router is connected to two subnets. The two subnets each include a switch or a router and a number of access points of either WLAN or Bluetooth, with a number notes connected. 3.3 Delimitation The delimitations are based on of the Preliminary analysis. 24
29 3.4. SCENARIOS ComNet, AAU PCs will be used as mobile devices There are a lot of mobile products available; which can handle communication via Bluetooth, WLAN or both. But PCs with WLAN and Bluetooth will be used to avoid the complexity included in using mobile phones or PDAs. Central server The main system consist of a central game-server, with handles all communication between the notes, directly connected to a central multicast router. The nodes are not able to directly communicate with each other. Other alternatives is either using peer-to-peer where all clients communicate with each other, or using one of the clients as server, where all the users communicate to the same client. The game type used is MO-FPS MO-FPS is chosen on the basis of the analyze of different game types in the section 2.1. It is the most interesting game type regarding its high demand for a low latency, and its relative high data communication rate. The main analysis will be centered on different multicast schemes. 3.4 Scenarios The overall scenario, 1.1, will be split up in tree scenarios. Each of the scenarios designed to test different problem Scenario I The first scenario, figure 3.1, is simple and will just be used to test multicasting on a simple level. The point is to set up a multicast router with a number of notes con- 25
30 Group 681 CHAPTER 3. PROBLEM DELIMITATION nected through both Bluetooth and WLAN. The multicast router will be tested with different multicast schemes. The scenario will also be used to test, the handover performance between two access point, both between two Bluetooth access points and two WLAN access points. Handover between different subnets is also possible. Figure 3.1: This scenario is the most simple with purpose of testing a multicast router with a number of notes Scenario II The second scenario, figure 3.2, is a bit more advanced where the central multicast router will send and receive data form the notes, through two other sub multicast routers, one used for Bluetooth and one used for WLAN. This will make the data sent from the central multicast router lower, since it only needs to sent a message to each of the two sub multicast routers, instead of sending a message to each node. 26
31 3.4. SCENARIOS ComNet, AAU Figure 3.2: System overview Scenario III The third scenario is based on testing the performance of handovers between a Bluetooth access point and a WLAN access point. This will affect the mobile notes with multiple homes. 27
32 Group 681 CHAPTER 4. ANALYSIS Chapter 4 Analysis 28
33 BIBLIOGRAPHY ComNet, AAU Bibliography [1] Overview of multiplayer mobile game design, version 1.1, December play Mobi v1 1 en.pdf. [2] Jochen Schiller. Mobile Communication, Second Edition. Addison Wesley, [3] Jennifer Bray. Masters and slaves: Roles in a bluetooth piconet, May [4] Cisco Systems. Internet protocol multicast, Febuary doc/ipmulti.htm. [5] David Makofske and Kevin Almeroth. Multicast Sockets - A practical Guide for Programmers. Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, [6] Wikipedia. Spanning tree, Marts tree %28networks%29. [7] Pragyansmita Paul and S V Raghaven. Survey of multicast routing algorithms and protocols, August files/pub/pragyan/survey multicasting.pdf. 29
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