UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS Dept. of Electrical & Computer Engineering. Computer Architecture ECE 568
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1 UNIVERSITY OF MASSACHUSETTS Dept of Electrical & Computer Engineering Computer Architecture ECE 568 art 5 Input/Output Israel Koren ECE568/Koren art5 CU performance keeps increasing core Xeon hi Each core Intel s Atom with 4 SMT threads VU: Vector processing unit 2 AVX52/core CHA cache coherency Mesh interconnect connect cores to on & off chip memory ECE568/Koren art5 2 age
2 Mainly due to more resources ECE568/Koren art5 3 Large CU-I/O speed gap Diminishing fraction of time in CU Diminishing value of faster CUs Amdahl's Law: system speed-up limited by the slowest part I/O bottleneck ECE568/Koren art5 4 age 2
3 Generic I/O System rocessor interrupts Cache Memory - I/O Bus Main Memory I/O I/O I/O Disk Disk Graphics Network Disks: Long-term, non-volatile storage, Large, inexpensive, also serve as slow level in the storage hierarchy Hard drives or Solid-state drives ECE568/Koren art5 5 Hard Drive Terminology Arm Head Sector Inner Outer Actuator latter Several platters, with information recorded magnetically on both surfaces (usually) Bits recorded sequentially in tracks, divided into sectors (eg, 52 Bytes) Actuator moves head (end of arm, /surface) over track ( seek ), select surface, wait for sector rotate under head, then read or write Cylinder : all tracks under heads ECE568/Koren art5 6 age 3
4 Disk Device erformance Outer Inner Sector Head Arm latter Actuator Disk Latency = Seek Time + Rotation Time + Transfer Time + Overhead Seek Time: depends on number of tracks arm moves Rotation Time: depends on speed disk rotates, how far sector is from head s current position Transfer Time: depends on data rate (bandwidth) of disk (bit density), size of request ECE568/Koren art5 7 Disk Device erformance Rotation Time: Avg distance to sector from head /2 time of a rotation 72 Revolutions er Minute 2 Rev/sec revolution = / 2 sec 833 milliseconds /2 rotation (revolution) 47 ms Seek Time: Average number of tracks arm moves Sum all possible seek distances from all possible tracks / Total_#_ops» Assumes random seek distance Disk industry standard benchmark j i Typical: ~8 ms Transfer rate -4 MByte/sec Capacity: s Gbytes to TeraBytes Quadruples every 2 years ECE568/Koren art5 8 age 4
5 Example: Barracuda ST3 Buffer Arm Head Sector Cylinder latter 3 TB, 35 inch disk 3 platters, 6 surfaces 6,383 cylinders 625 Gbit/in² 7,2 RM 85 ms avg seek 56 MB/s ms controller time ECE568/Koren art5 9 Calculate time to read 64 KB (28 sectors) using specs Disk latency = avg seek time + avg rotational delay + transfer time + controller overhead = 85 ms + 5 * /(72 RM) + 64 KB/(56 MB/s) + ms = ms =32 ms source: wwwseagatecom Disk erformance Example Recalculated Calculate again using /3 quoted seek time (not random, mostly to adjacent tracks), 3/4 of internal bandwidth (check bits and gaps between sectors) Disk latency = average seek time + average rotational delay + transfer time + controller overhead = (33 * 85 ms) + 5 * /(72 RM) + 64 KB / (75 * 56 MB/s) + ms = 29 ms + 5 /(72 RM/(6ms/M)) + 64 KB / (7 KB/ms) + ms = = 774 ms (59% of 32) ECE568/Koren art5 age 5
6 Large Arrays of Disks Servers and data-centers require large storage capacity but large arrays of disks have low reliability Reliability_disk = exp(-λt) where λ is a constant failure rate MTTF = Mean_Time_to_Failure = / λ A single disk has MTTF=5, hours 6 years Reliability of N disks = {exp(- λt)}^n = exp(-nλt) MTTF_array = / N λ For N=7 disks: 5,/7= 7 hours month Arrays (without redundancy) too unreliable ECE568/Koren art5 RAID Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks Files are "striped" across multiple disks with redundant data added Upon failure: Contents reconstructed from data redundantly stored in the array Redundancy yields high data availability service still provided to user, even if some components fail but Capacity penalty to store redundant info erformance penalty to update redundant info ECE568/Koren art5 2 age 6
7 RAID : Disk Mirroring/Shadowing Each disk is fully duplicated onto its mirror Very high availability Bandwidth sacrifice on write: Logical write = two physical writes Reads may be optimized Most expensive solution: % capacity overhead (RAID 2 and 3 not interesting, so skip) ECE568/Koren art5 3 RAID 4: arity Disk = sum mod 2 of other disks (parity) If disk fails, subtract from sum mod 2 of other disks to find missing information Each sector has an error check field (cyclic redundancy check - CRC) that detects single bit faults and consecutive bit faults sector faulty sector ECE568/Koren art5 4 age 7
8 Insides of five disks RAID 4: High I/O Rate 2 3 D D D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 4 Increasing Logical Disk Address D8 D9 D D Example: small read D & D5, large write D2-D5 ECE568/Koren art5 5 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9 D2 D2 D22 D23 Disk Columns Stripe RAID 5: High I/O Rate Interleaved arity Independent writes possible because of interleaved parity D D D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9 D D Increasing Logical Disk Addresses Example: write to D & D5 uses disks,, 3 and 4 ECE568/Koren art5 6 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9 D2 D2 D22 D23 Disk Columns age 8
9 System Availability: Orthogonal RAIDs Array RAID Group: data redundancy Common Support Components: fans, power supplies, controller, cables ECE568/Koren art5 7 Solid state drives- flash technology Organization similar to DRAM but basic cell is different ECE568/Koren art5 8 age 9
10 Solid state drives Most are currently based on NAND flash Read blocks (4K byte) Write erasure (multiple blocks) slower than Read SLC single layer cell: low density, read ~25µs write ~25µs; write endurance ~, cycles TLC (Triple level) high density, read ~75µs; write ~µs; write endurance ~, cycles Wear leveling re-mapping of the contents on every write avoid the high frequency of re-writes to certain blocks Random bit errors due the noisy environment in the chip and the weak signals from the cells Error correction (for transient and permanent bit failures) BCH code (a cyclic code based on finite-fields), eg, can correct up to 55 bit errors in a 52 byte sector ECE568/Koren art5 9 Copyright 26 Koren UMass Solid-state vs hard disk drives Solid-state Drive Start-up time Instantaneous Spin-up Access latency ms or less, random access Hard Disk Drive 3-2 msec, varies with relative position Transfer rate -6 MB/sec About 5 MB/sec Cost $37/GB $5-/GB ower consumption 5-% of 35 2Watt Capacity 52 GB and up 8 TB Reliability Environment impact ower outage may cause damage Not sensitive and less noisy Mechanical failures, unpowered: long lifetime Sensitive to shocks and temperature ECE568/Koren art5 2 Copyright 26 Koren UMass age
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