1) Introduction to SQL
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- Abner Mathews
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1 1) Introduction to SQL a) Database language enables users to: i) Create the database and relation structure; ii) Perform insertion, modification and deletion of data from the relationship; and iii) Perform both simple and complex queries. b) Structured Query Language (SQL): A query language for database. The standard language for database relationship, defined by the ANSI in 1986 and certified by the ISO in i) SQL has two components: (1) Data Definition Language (DDL): For defining the database structure and controlling access to data (2) Data Manipulation Language (DML): For retrieving and updating data ii) Dialect: Implementation of SQL by particular companies. iii) Three basic clauses in each query in the SQL: SELECT (DISTINCT ALL) column_name FROM table name WHERE condition iv) Observation about SQL: (1) SQL statement consists of reserved words and user-defined words. (a) Reserved words are a fixed part of SQL and must be spelt exactly as required and cannot be split across lines. (b) User-defined words are made up by user and represent names of various database objects such as relations, columns, views. (2) SQL statements are not case sensitive, however to simplify your understanding, we shall adhere to: (a) UPPER CASE letters are used to represent reserved words (b) lower case letters are used to represent users-defined words. (3) indicates a choice among alternatives (4) Curly braces { } indicate a required element (5) Square brackets [ ] indicate optional elements (6) Literals are constants used in SQL statements. (7) All non-numeric literals must be enclosed in single quotes (e.g. London ) (8) All numeric literals must not be enclosed in quotes (e.g ). v) The Select Statement: SELECT [DISTINCT ALL] {* [columnexpression [AS newname]] [,...] } FROM TableName [alias] [,...] [WHERE condition] [GROUP BY columnlist] [HAVING condition] [ORDER BY columnlist] (1) SELECT: Specifies which columns are to appear in output. (2) FROM: Specifies table(s) to be used. (3) WHERE: Filters rows. (4) GROUP BY: Forms groups of rows with same column value. (5) HAVING: Filters groups subject to some condition. (6) ORDER BY: Specifies the order of the output. vi) Four Queries for SQL Development: (1) What is the output required? (2) What have you known (what are the restrictions involved)? (3) What are the tables involved? (4) How are tables linked? Page 1
2 vii) SQL is easy to learn because: (1) It is a non-procedural language; users only specify what information is required and not the access methods to data; (2) It is essentially a free-format, meaning the format is easy to understand; (3) Its application is in the standard English language; (4) It is not dependent on capital and small alphabets but must be typed as the content of the database (5) It can be used by a range of users such as database administrators (DBA), programmers, end users. 2) Data Definition Language a) SQL Data Types and Identifiers: i) Data String Type: String is divided into (1) Char string: May be declared through two forms: (a) CHAR (n): String character consisting of n characters. Memory uses all the declared n characters. (b) VARCHAR (n): Where the number of string characters is changed from one to n characters. Here storage space can be saved as even though n is declared, memory uses only the required space. (2) Bit string: BIT consists of bit 0 or 1. Boolean value T is represented by bit 1 and Boolean value F is represented by bit 0. Similar to character string as it can be declared as: (a) BIT (n) if the length is fixed, (b) BIT VARYING (n) if the length varies. ii) Numeric Data Type: Consists of integer, decimal, float and real numbers. (1) Integer or INT: for integer numbers (2) SMALLINT: for small integers (3) DECIMAL (m,n) or DEC (m,n): for decimal number with m digit amount and n decimal points. (4) NUMERIC (m,n): Similar with DEC (m,n) (5) FLOAT: for decimal point number (6) REAL: for exact number (7) DOUBLE PRECISION: for exact number with required high precision iii) Date and Time Domain: (1) DATE: Consists of year, month and day (2) TIME: Consists of hours and minutes b) Identifiers: Can be defined as users or systems. Identifiers consist of set characters allowed, which are letters a - z, capital lettesr A - Z, digits 0-9 and symbols " -". An identifier can be no longer than 128 characters and must not contain a space. Eg: CREATE TABLE Employees ( Employee_ID INT primary key, Name VARCHAR(100), Registered_Date DATE, Salary DECIMAL (7,2)); c) Database Schema: is a group of objects linked to each other. The objects in a database schema may consist of tables, domains and a set of characters. i) CREATE TABLE Definition in the SQL command is used to create a database schema. This statement enables a basic table and structure details to be developed. The format is: CREATE TABLE table_name column_name, data_type NULL, NOT NULL) ii) DROP TABLE: Removes tables and structure within it DROP TABLE table_name [ RESTRICT CASCADE ] (1) RESTRICT: Safeguards tables from being removed if the attribute is a foreign key (2) CASCADE: Allows all attributes dependents on the table to be removed. Page 2
3 3) Data Management a) INSERT: Used to add one row into an existing table through a format as shown below: INSERT INTO table_name [ column_list ] VALUES (value_data_list) i) column_list is a list of column names to be added. You can ignore this list. You may also choose to list only a part of the column name and this means that the column not stated takes up a null value. ii) value_data_list is a list of value data to be added. This list must be similar to the column_list stated or to the column name inside a table if the column_list is not stated. Eg: INSERT INTO Employees VALUES (1005, Faridah, , ) b) UPDATE: Only changes the content of the table and not the table structure. The format is as follows. UPDATE table table_name SET column_name_1 = value_data1 [column_name_2 = value_data2] [WHERE condition] i) table_name is name of the table to be updated. ii) column_name is the name of the column for the updated table. iii) value data is the new data. iv) SET (reserved name) lists one or more columns with the updated value. Eg: UPDATE Employees SET Salary = WHERE Employee_ID = 1005 c) DELETE: DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition] i) The command WHERE is a choice. If stated, it must comply with the ruling statement to search for deleted lines. The only lines that comply with the table will be deleted. ii) A missing WHERE clause specifies that all lines in the table are to be deleted. DELETE WHERE Employee_ID = ) Query Data a) Solution Strategy: SELECT DISTINCT A1, A2 FROM T1, T2 WHERE S i) Obtaining the product of T1 and T2 crossed multiplication. ii) Deleting rows that do not comply with the S ruling. iii) Deleting tuples except A1 and A2. iv) Deleting repeated rows if required. b) Retrieve All Columns and Tuples SELECT * c) Retrieve Specific Columns and Tuples SELECT Name, Salary d) DISTINCT Application: SELECT DISTINCT Salary Page 3
4 e) SQL allows us to i) Produce specific rows and tuples: To choose rows, the rule is applied after the command WHERE. Among the types of tests you can apply when choosing the rules of rows are: (1) Comparison: Comparison of one value statement after another value statement (2) Range test: To test if any value statement falls within a particular range value (3) Design matching: To test whether one design is suitable with another design (4) Set Number: To test if one value statement is identical to one set element (5) Null: Set Number to test whether a tuple consists of the null value ii) Change the title of a particular tuple for a specific purpose: You may present one tuple under a different name using the reserve word AS. You may also use the reserve word AS to name all relationships. It can be used in the SELECT or FROM commands in the following form: Previous_name AS new_name (1) Reasons why we name all tuples and relationships: (a) When output produces two similar tuples; (b) When output produces tuples without a name, which is where we use the arithmetic statement in SELECT command; (c) When we require other names in the output presentation. Select Employee_ID AS Tutor_ID, Name AS Tutor_Name iii) Compare between Ranges: SELECT Name, Salary WHERE Salary >= 2500 and Salary <=3000 iv) Multiple comparison: SELECT Name, Salary WHERE (Salary >= 2500 and Salary <=3000) AND (Registered_Date = ' ') (1) Rules for Multiple Comparisons: (a) The statement rule is valued in the following order of importance: (b) From left to right; (c) Statement in brackets is valued first; and (d) The reserved word NOT is more primary than AND and AND is more primary than OR. v) Comparing Sequence: (1) LIKE '%A': any string ending with A (2) LIKE 'A%': first letter begins with A followed by any character (3) LIKE '%A%': any string that contains A (4) NOT LIKE '%A% : any string not consisting of A (5) LIKE ' : any string with two characters (6) LIKE'_A%': any string where the second character is A SELECT Name, Salary WHERE Name LIKE 'Fari%' OR Name LIKE "Fari " vi) NULL Search (IS NULL / IS NOT NULL): SELECT Employee_ID, Name WHERE Salary IS NOT NULL Page 4
5 f) Sorting the Results: i) Sorting by One Attribute: SELECT * ORDER BY DESC Salary ii) Sorting by More than one Attribute: SELECT * ORDER BY DESC Salary, Name g) Aggregate Functions: SQL adopts five aggregate functions according to ISO standard which can be implemented as one tuple and table to produce one value for a particular tuple. i) They are: (1) COUNT: returns the numeric value in a tuple (according to repeated value). Count(*) to count including NULL values and similar values at different rows. (2) SUM: returns the value amount in a tuple (3) AVG: returns the average value in a tuple (4) MIN: returns the smallest value in a tuple (5) MAX: returns the biggest value in a tuple If the SELECT application contains an aggregate function and devoid of the GROUP BY command, SELECT is unable to recognise rows. SELECT CourseCode, AVG (Grade) FROM Registration GROUP BY CourseCode ii) COUNT and DISTINCT Application: Here, COUNT is used to calculate all lines and DISTINCT to erase all repeated lines SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT Major) AS CountMajor iii) COUNT and SUM application: Here, COUNT is used to return the value of one tuple but SUM returns the value amount of one tuple. SELECT COUNT (Employee_ID) AS No_Of_Employees, SUM (Salary) AS Total_Salary iv) MIN, MAX and AVG Application: SELECT Min (Salary) as Minimum, MAX (Salary) AS Maximum, AVG (Salary) AS Average h) Gathering Results: i) GROUP BY Clause: To group rows according to the group stated. SELECT Major, COUNT (*) AS No_of_Students GROUP BY Major Groups rows according to group majors and then counts the number of rows for each major. ii) HAVING Clause: Must be used after the GROUP BY clause, To place the standard in a particular group (1) HAVING and ORDER BY Clause: The ORDER BY clause must be used after HAVING clause. SELECT Major, COUNT (MatricNo) AS Sum_Student GROUP BY Major HAVING COUNT (MatricNo) > 1 ORDER BY Major Page 5
6 (2) HAVING and GROUP BY Clause: SELECT MatricNo, AVG (Value) as Average GROUP BY MatricNo HAVING Average > 2.9 i) Sub-queries: May be applied in WHERE and HAVING clauses that exist in the SELECT clause. In addition, subqueries can be used in INSERT, UPDATE, and DELETE commands. i) Using a Sub-query with Equality: To use the sub-query with outer equality, the symbol "=" can be used to return the value of inner sub-query SELECT MatricNo, StudentName WHERE MatricNo IN (SELECT MatricNo FROM Registration Where CourseCode= 'SK100') The inner SELECT statement will choose students with the SK100 course registration, whereas the outer SELECT statement produces information on SK100 students. ii) Using a Sub-query with an Aggregate Function: The outer statement can be combined with the outer sub-query by using the aggregate function SELECT TutorNo, TutorName, Salary FROM Tutor Where Salary > (SELECT AVG (Salary) FROM Tutor ) (1) Points to Note: (a) The ORDER BY command cannot be used in sub-query (it can be used in outer SELECT). (b) The SELECT sub-query must contain only one tuple or command except the sub-query using the EXIST clause. (c) The tuple name refers to tables in the FROM command in the sub-query. It can also refer to the tables in the FROM command by using the ALIAS clause. iii) Nested Sub-queries (Use of IN): The reserve word IN and NOT IN is used to test set members. A set may refer to a conclusive-given value or produced by a query. (1) Testing Set Numbers: SELECT MatricNo, StudentName, Major WHERE Major IN ('Networking', 'Computer Science', 'Multimedia') (2) Usage of IN in Sub-query: SELECT MatricNo, StudentName WHERE Major = 'Multimedia' AND MatricNo IN (SELECT MetricNo FROM Registration WHERE Grade = 'A' AND CourseCode= 'MM200' ) The sub-query returns one student taking the MM200 course per number with grade value 4.00 for the particular course. The first SELECT (also known as outer SELECT) chooses Students majoring in Multimedia from this set. iv) Use of NOT IN: SELECT TutorNo, FROM Tutor WHERE TutorNo NOT IN (SELECT TutorNo FROM Course) The sub-query above lists down information on all tutors. However, the external SELECT statement lists out all courses taught by Lecturers. Page 6
7 j) Set Comparison using ANY, SOME and ALL: If one sub-query begins with the reserved word ANY or SOME, the rules of comparison returns the TRUE value if one of the elements produced by the sub-query fulfils the required rule. If the reserve word ALL is used, the comparison rule returns the TRUE statement only if all elements in the sub-query produced fulfil the particular comparison. i) ANY and SOME Clause: The ANY or SOME clause can be used to search for the smallest value within the internal sub-query SELECT TutorNo, TutorName, Post, Salary FROM Tutor WHERE Salary > SOME (SELECT Salary FROM Tutor WHERE Post = 'Assist Lecturer') ii) ALL Clause: Compared to the SOME clause, the ALL clause is used to find the biggest value from the set produced in the internal sub-query. /*List tutors with a salary greater than each of the tutor with assist lecturer post.*/ SELECT Tutor FROM Tutor Where Salary > ALL (SELECT Salary FROM Tutor WHERE Post = 'Assist Lecturer') k) Multiple Table Statements: i) Simple Union: /*List lecturers teaching the Database Course.*/ SELECT P.Tutor_No, P.Tutor_Name, K.CourseName FROM Course K, Tutor P WHERE K.Tutor_No = P.Tutor_No AND P.Post = 'Lecturer' AND K.CourseName = 'Database' ii) Structuring Union: If the there is more than one table used in a query, you are allowed to isolate the product obtained. /*List students for each course.*/ SELECT D.MatricNo, CourseCode, K.CourseName FROM Register D, Course K WHERE D.CourseCode = K.CourseCode ORDER BY D.MatricNo, P.CourseCode l) EXIST and NON EXIST Clause: EXIST returns the TRUE value if the sub-query produces at least one statement, and returns the FALSE value if the sub-query produces blank tables. NOT EXIST is the opposite command of EXIST. i) EXIST Clause: Used to test the existence of a statement for a query. If the statement exists than the product will be presented, else the table produced will remain blank. /*List all MM1100 course*/ SELECT MatricNo FROM EXISTS WHERE (SELECT * FROM Register D, Course K WHERE D.CourseCode = K.CourseCode AND K.CourseCode = 'MM100') m) Combining Tables: Commands and Details: (1) A UNION B: Return all rows in tables A or B or both (2) A INTERSECT B: Returns all rows in A that exist in B (3) A EXCEPT B: Returns all rows in A which do not exist in B i) UNION Clause: Can be used to combine results from two or more tables. /*List students majoring in Multimedia or students registered with the RK200 course.*/ (SELECT MatricNo WHERE Major = 'Multimedia') UNION (SELECT MatricNo FROM Registration WHERE CourseCode = 'RK200') Page 7
8 ii) INTERSECT clause: Can be used to derive the product in one table and also in another table. /*List students who have registered for the Java Course and Programming tool.*/ (SELECT D.MatricNo FROM Course K, Register D WHERE K.CourseCode = D.CourseCode AND K.CourseName= 'Java') INTERSECT (SELECT D.MatricNo FROM Course K1, Registration D1 WHERE K1.CourseCode = D1.CourseCode AND K1.CourseName = 'Authoring Tool') iii) EXCEPT Clause: EXCEPT can be used to return the value of a table but not values in other tables. /*List students who have registered for the Java Course and but not for the Authoring Course.*/ (SELECT D.MatricNo FROM Course K, Registration D WHERE K.CourseCode = D.CourseCode AND K.CourseName = 'Java' ) EXCEPT (SELECT D1.MatricNo FROM Course K1, Registration D1 WHERE K1.CourseCode = D1=CourseCode AND K1.CourseName = 'Authoring Tool') Page 8
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