MEDICAL IMAGE ANALYSIS

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1 SECOND EDITION MEDICAL IMAGE ANALYSIS ATAM P. DHAWAN g, A B IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society, Sponsor IEEE Press Series in Biomedical Engineering Metin Akay, Series Editor +IEEE IEEE PRESS WWILEY A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION

2 CONTENTS PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1. Medical Imaging: A Collaborative Paradigm Medical Imaging Modalities Medical Imaging: from Physiology to Information Processing Understanding Physiology and Imaging Medium Physics of Imaging Imaging Instrumentation Data Acquisition and Image Reconstruction Image Analysis and Applications General Performance Measures An Example of Performance Measure Biomedical Image Processing and Analysis Matlab Image Processing Toolbox Digital Image Representation Basic MATLAB Image Toolbox Commands Imagepro Interface in Matlab Environment and Image Databases Imagepro Image Processing Interface Installation Instructions Imagej and Other Image Processing Software Packages Exercises References Definitions 22 CHAPTER 2 IMAGE FORMATION Image Coordinate System D Image Rotation D Image Rotation and Translation Transformation Linear Systems Point Source and Impulse Functions Probability and Random Variable Functions Conditional and Joint Probability Density Functions Independent and Orthogonal Random Variables Image Formation PSF and Spatial Resolution Signal-to-Noise Ratio Contrast-to-Noise Ratio 39 vii

3 Viii CONTENTS 2.6. Pin-hole Imaging Fourier Transform Sinc Function Radon Transform Sampling Discrete Fourier Transform Wavelet Transform Exercises References 62 CHAPTER 3 INTERACTION OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION WITH MATTER IN MEDICAL IMAGING Electromagnetic Radiation Electromagnetic Radiation for Image Formation Radiation Interaction with Matter Coherent or Rayleigh Scattering Photoelectric Absorption Compton Scattering Pair Production Linear Attenuation Coefficient Radiation Detection Ionized Chambers and Proportional Counters Semiconductor Detectors Advantages of Semiconductor Detectors Scintillation Detectors Detector Subsystem Output Voltage Pulse Exercises References 78 CHAPTER 4 MEDICAL IMAGING MODALITIES: X-RAY IMAGING X-Ray Imaging X-Ray Generation X-Ray 2-D Projection Imaging X-Ray Mammography X-Ray CT Spiral X-Ray CT Contrast Agent, Spatial Resolution, and SNR Exercises References 97 CHAPTER 5 MEDICAL IMAGING MODALITIES: MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING MRI Principles MR Instrumentation MRI Pulse Sequences Spin-Echo Imaging Inversion Recovery Imaging 118

4 CONTENTS Echo Planar Imaging Gradient Echo Imaging 5.4. Flow Imaging fmri Diffusion Imaging Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR Exercises References 138 CHAPTER 6 NUCLEAR MEDICINE IMAGING MODALITIES Radioactivity SPECT Detectors and Data Acquisition System Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and Signal-to-Noise Ratio in SPECT Imaging PET Detectors and Data Acquisition Systems Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR in PET Imaging Dual-Modality Spect CT and PET CT Scanners Exercises References 155 CHAPTER 7 MEDICAL IMAGING MODALITIES: ULTRASOUND IMAGING Propagation of Sound in a Medium Reflection and Refraction Transmission of Ultrasound Waves in a Multilayered Medium Attenuation Ultrasound Reflection Imaging Ultrasound Imaging Instrumentation Imaging with Ultrasound: A-Mode Imaging with Ultrasound: M-Mode Imaging with Ultrasound: B-Mode Doppler Ultrasound Imaging Contrast, Spatial Resolution, and SNR Exercises References 172 CHAPTER 8 IMAGE RECONSTRUCTION Radon Transform and Image Reconstruction The Central Slice Theorem Inverse Radon Transform Backprojection Method Iterative Algebraic Reconstruction Methods Estimation Methods Fourier Reconstruction Methods Image Reconstruction in Medical Imaging Modalities Image Reconstruction in X-Ray CT 186

5 X CONTENTS Image Reconstruction in Nuclear Emission Computed Tomography: SPECT and PET A General Approach to ML EM Algorithms A Multigrid EM Algorithm Image Reconstruction in Magnetic Resonance Imaging Image Reconstruction in Ultrasound Imaging Exercises References 195 CHAPTER 9 IMAGE PROCESSING AND ENHANCEMENT Spatial Domain Methods Histogram Transformation and Equalization Histogram Modification Image Averaging Image Subtraction Neighborhood Operations Median Filter Adaptive Arithmetic Mean Filter Image Sharpening and Edge Enhancement Feature Enhancement Using Adaptive Neighborhood Processing Frequency Domain Filtering Wiener Filtering Constrained Least Square Filtering Low-Pass Filtering High-Pass Filtering Homomorphic Filtering Wavelet Transform for Image Processing Image Smoothing and Enhancement Using Wavelet Transform Exercises References 228 CHAPTER 10 IMAGE SEGMENTATION Edge-Based Image Segmentation Edge Detection Operations Boundary Tracking Hough Transform Pixel-Based Direct Classification Methods Optimal Global Thresholding Pixel Classification Through Clustering Data Clustering k-means Clustering Fuzzy c-means Clustering An Adaptive FCM Algorithm Region-Based Segmentation Region-Growing Region-Splitting 247

6 CONTENTS Xi Advanced Segmentation Methods Estimation-Model Based Adaptive Segmentation Image Segmentation Using Neural Networks Backpropagation Neural Network for Classification The RBF Network Segmentation of Arterial Structure in Digital Subtraction Angiograms Exercises References 262 CHAPTER 11 IMAGE REPRESENTATION, ANALYSIS, AND CLASSIFICATION Feature Extraction and Representation Statistical Pixel-Level Features Shape Features Boundary Encoding: Chain Code Boundary Encoding: Fourier Descriptor Moments for Shape Description Morphological Processing for Shape Description Texture Features Relational Features Feature Selection for Classification Linear Discriminant Analysis PCA GA-Based Optimization Feature and Image Classification Statistical Classification Methods Nearest Neighbor Classifier Bayesian Classifier Rule-Based Systems Neural Network Classifiers Neuro-Fuzzy Pattern Classification 2% Support Vector Machine for Classification Image Analysis and Classification Example: "Difficult-To-Diagnose" Mammographie Microcalcifications Exercises References 307 CHAPTER 12 IMAGE REGISTRATION Rigid-Body Transformation Affine Transformation Principal Axes Registration Iterative Principal Axes Registration Image Landmarks and Features-Based Registration Similarity Transformation for Point-Based Registration Weighted Features-Based Registration Elastic Deformation-Based Registration Exercises References 331

7 Xii CONTENTS CHAPTER 13 IMAGE VISUALIZATION Feature-Enhanced 2-D Image Display Methods Stereo Vision and Semi-3-D Display Methods Surface- and Volume-Based 3-D Display Methods Surface Visualization Volume Visualization VR-Based Interactive Visualization Virtual Endoscopy Exercises References 350 CHAPTER 14 CURRENT AND FUTURE TRENDS IN MEDICAL IMAGING AND IMAGE ANALYSIS Multiparameter Medical Imaging and Analysis Targeted Imaging Optical Imaging and Other Emerging Modalities Optical Microscopy Optical Endoscopy Optical Coherence Tomography Diffuse Reflectance and Transillumination Imaging Photoacoustic Imaging: An Emerging Technology Model-Based and Multiscale Analysis References 366 INDEX 369

BME I5000: Biomedical Imaging

1 Lucas Parra, CCNY BME I5000: Biomedical Imaging Lecture 4 Computed Tomography Lucas C. Parra, parra@ccny.cuny.edu some slides inspired by lecture notes of Andreas H. Hilscher at Columbia University.