Protocols, Technologies and Standards Secure network protocols for the OSI stack P2.1 WLAN Security WPA, WPA2, IEEE i, IEEE 802.1X P2.

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1 P2 Protocols, Technologies and Standards Secure network protocols for the OSI stack P2.1 WLAN Security WPA, WPA2, IEEE i, IEEE 802.1X P2.2 IP Security IPsec transport mode (host-to-host), ESP and AH IPsec tunnel mode (VPN), ESP and AH IPsec ESP payload P2.3 Internet Key Exchange Security Associations IKEv1 Main Mode and Quick Mode IKEv1 Aggressive Mode IKEv2 IKE_SA_INIT, IKE_AUTH, and CREATE_CHILD_SA messages Advantages of IKEv2 over IKEv1 P2.4 Transport Layer Security Secure Sockets TLS record protocol TLS handshake protocol TLS session resumption SSL/TLS Versions 1

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3 Network Layer Security (IPsec) Security by encryption/signature implemented in the Kernel. Difficult to make authentication data available to the application because the IKE keying daemon runs as a separate process. Transport Layer Security (SSL/TLS) Security by encryption/signature implemented in the Userland. Feasible to make authentication data available to the application, e.g. via environment variables because the SSL/TLS handshake process is integrated into the secure socket serving the application. Application Layer Security (WS-Security) Security by encryption/signature implemented in the Userland. If the WS-Security layer is terminated by the application itself then all authentication data is fully available. 3

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6 IEEE 802.1x Port-Based Network Access Control IEEE 802.1x can be used for wireless authentication using a RADIUS server for authenticating client credentials. IEEE 802.1x is a draft standard fo port-based network acess control, to provide authenticated access for Ethernet networks. Port-based network access control utilizes the physical characteristics of the switched LAN infrastructure in order to provide a means of authenticating devices attached to a LAN port, and for preventing access to that port in cases where the authentication process fails. A LAN port, also denoted as a Port Access Entity, can adopt one of two roles in an access control interaction: supplicant or authenticator: The supplicant is a port that requests access to services accessible via the authenticator's port. An authenticator is a port that enforces authentication before allowing access to services accessible via that port. In addition, the authentication server performs the authentication function to check the supplicant's credentials on behalf of the authenticator. It then responds to the authenticator, indicating whether the supplicant is authorized to access the authenticator's services. The authentication server may be a separate entity or ist functions may be co-located with the authenticator. Source: 6

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8 Authenticity of IP connections In order to prevent IP spoofing and connection hijacking, as well as to secure the content of IP datagrams against any unauthorized modifications, all IP datagrams sent over the Internet should be authenticated. Privacy of IP connections In order to guarantee privacy, all IP datagrams sent over the Internet should be encrypted by employing strong cryptography. Encryption and Authentication Encryption without authentication is vulnerable to various attacks. Therefore encryption must always be combined with authentication. 8

9 IP Authentication Header (AH) The IPsec AH Protocol is specified in RFC AH protects both IP header and IP payload against modifications by computing a keyed message authentication code (MAC) over most octets of the IP datagram. Excluded from the cryptographic checksum are the following mutable header fields: Type of Service (TOS) Fragment Offset (always zero since AH is applied to non-fragmented packets, only) Flags Time to Live (TTL) IP header checksum The above header fields could possibly get modified by intermediate routers en-route from source to destination. The secured checksum is transmitted in the AH header, together with an arbitrary 32 bit Secure Parameters Index (SPI) uniquely identifying the Security Association and a 32 bit Sequence Number preventing replay attacks. The AH header has the structure of an IPv6 extension header but can also be carried over IPv4. Not only TCP and UDP but any transport layer protocol can be protected by AH. The Protocol field in the original IP header is set to the decimal value 51, designating the AH protocol and the Next Header field in the AH header carries the original protocol number(e.g. 1 for ICMP, 6 for TCP, 17 for UDP), identifying the transport layer payload carried in the IP datagram. 9

10 IP Encapsulating Security Payload (ESP) The IPsec ESP Protocol is specified in RFC ESP encrypts the transport payload of the IP datagram using a strong symmetric encryption algorithm (IDEA, 3DES, AES, etc.). An ESP trailer is appended prior to encryption in order to align the payload data to a 4-byte boundary required by the ESP packet format. It may also be used to adapt the plaintext size to the block size of the block cipher (e.g. 64 bits for 3DES). Since IP packets could get lost, the encrypted payload is usually preceded by an initialization vector (IV) that is used by the receiver to initialize the block cipher algorithm used for the decryption of each IP payload. The ESP header has the structure of an IPv6 extension header but can also be carried over IPv4. Similar to the AH header it contains a 32 bit Secure Parameters Index (SPI) and a 32 bit Sequence Number. Any transport layer protocol can be encapsulated by ESP. The Protocol field in the original IP header is set to the decimal value 50, designating the ESP protocol and the Next Header field in the ESP header carries the original protocol number identifying the transport layer protocol carried in the encrypted IP payload. Optionally the ESP payload can be authenticated by computing a keyed message digest over the body of the IP datagram and appending the MAC value as authentication data at the end of the encrypted payload. The IP header is not included in the checksum and therefore is not protected. In the case of an IPsec transport mode application where besides encryption also the protection of the IP header is required, the ESP and AH protocols can be cascaded by first encrypting the original IP payload using ESP and then authenticating both the original IP header and the ESP payload using AH. 10

11 Virtual Private Networks A Virtual Private Network (VPN) can be used by an enterprise to connect its subnets or individual hosts located at various sites over shared public or semi-public communication channels. Compared to dedicated leased lines a VPN solution can offer significant cost savings without incurring any compromises regarding security requirements. VPNs can be realised using the Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol (L2TP) defined by the IETF or the now obsolete Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol (PPTP). Layer 2 tunnels are often transported over IP based networks using UDP as a transport medium but emulating a link layer dial-in line from source to destination. An elegant and increasingly popular VPN solution is based on layer 3 mechanisms using secure IP tunnels based on the IPsec protocol suite. IPsec Tunnels Two enterprise subnets can be securely connected with each other over the public Internet using an encrypted and authenticated IPsec tunnel. IP packets from a host on the local subnet to a host on the remote subnet are forwarded to the local Security Gateway (SG) which in turn tunnels the IP packets to the Security Gateway on the remote end of the IPsec tunnel where they are delivered to the destination host. The hosts belonging to the subnets are not aware of any security mechanisms. For them the Security Gateways have the function of simple routers. The encapsulation provided by the IPsec tunnels allows the use of private network addresses (e.g /24 in one subnet and /24 in the second subnet) which are normally not routable over the Internet. 11

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13 ESP Overhead 3DES AES SPI 4 4 Sequence Number 4 4 IV 8 16 Padding (worst-case) 7 15 Pad Length / Next Header 2 2 Authentication Data IPsec Transport Mode bytes Outer IP Header IPsec Tunnel Mode bytes MTU bytes ==== ==== Usually Path MTU discovery based on "fragmentation needed" ICMP messages" automatically reduces the MTU from a standard LAN MTU of 1500 bytes down to a payload data size that does not lead to fragmentation when the IPsec overhead is added. 13

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18 SA1 i KE i N i Suite of cryptographic proposals for the IKE SA Initiatior public factor for the Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange Initiator Nonce SA1 r Selection of a cryptographic proposal for the IKE SA KE r Responder public factor for the Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange N r Responder Nonce ID i Initiator ID Cert i Initiator Certificate (optional) ID r Desired Responder ID (optional) Auth i Initiator Authentication (RSA, PSK, or EAP) SA2 i Suite of cryptographic proposals for the Child SA (ESP and/or AH) TS i Initiator Traffic Selectors (subnets behind the Initiator) TS r Responder Traffic Selectors (subnets behind the Responder) ID r Responder ID Cert r Responder Certificate (optional) Auth r Responder Authentication (RSA, PSK, or EAP) SA2 r Selection of a cryptographic proposal for the Child SA (ESP and/or AH) TS i Initiator Traffic Selectors (subnets behind the Initiator, optional narrowing) TS r Responder Traffic Selectors (subnets behind the Responder, optional narrowing) 18

19 N SA i N i KE i TS i TS r Rekeying Notification (optional) Suite of cryptographic proposals for the Child SA (ESP and/or AH) Initiator Nonce Initiatior public factor for the Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange (optional PFS) Initiator Traffic Selectors (subnets behind the Initiator) Responder Traffic Selectors (subnets behind the Responder SA1 r Selection of a cryptographic proposal for the IKE SA N r Responder Nonce KE r Responder public factor for the Diffie-Hellman Key Exchange (optional PFS) TS i Initiator Traffic Selectors (subnets behind the Initiator) TS r Responder Traffic Selectors (subnets behind the Responder 19

20 IKEv1 Standards RFC 2407: IPsec Domain of Interpretation for ISAKMP (IPsec DoI) RFC 2408: Internet Security Association and Key Management Protocol (ISAKMP) RFC 2409: Internet Key Exchange (IKE) IKEv2 Standards RFC 4306: Internet Key Exchange (IKEv2) Protocol RFC 4555: IKEv2 Mobility and Multihoming Protocol (MOBIKE) RFC 4718: IKEv2 Clarifications and Implementation Guidelines 20

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23 SSL/TLS Protocol Layer The Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is inserted between the Transport layer and the Application Layer (with communication layers defined according to Tanenbaum!). In contrast to IPsec which is a Layer 3+ protocol based directly on IPv4 or IPv6, SSL is a Layer 4+ protocol based directly on a TCP transport mechanism. The SSL/TLS protocol offers secure sockets to SSL-aware applications. The TCP/IP stack of the client and server platforms does not have to be modified! The SSL/TLS protocol is responsible for the following tasks: - Fragmentation of application data streams into SSL/TLS PDUs - Compression of PDUs before encryption - Authentication of PDUs - Encryption of PDUs 23

24 The TLS Record Protocol is sandwiched between a reliable Transport layer (that means TCP and not UDP) and the Application layer. Though the TLS Handshake Protocol is not really an application protocol, it sits above the TLS Record Protocol in the stack, and its messages are encapsulated by the TLS Record Protocol. A single TLS record may be up to bytes in length. A TLS message may span multiple TLS records. A TLS certificate message may in principle be as long as 16MB. The TLS Handshake Messages allow the server and the client to authenticate each other and to negotiate an encryption algorithm and cryptographic keys before the application protocol transmits or receives its first byte of data. Thus, when a TLS client and server first start communicating, they agree on a protocol version, select cryptographic algorithms, optionally authenticate each other, and use public key cryptography techniques to generate shared secrets. The TLS Handshake provides the negotiated security parameters for the Application Message exchange. The TLS Application Message exchange uses a keyed-hash MAC (Message Authenticity Code), or HMAC, to protect the message's data integrity. An HMAC algorithm takes a secret key and a message and generates a hash. (There are other types of MAC algorithms.) Calculation of the HMAC with the same hash algorithm at the recipient's end of the communication would detect tampering with the data. And, because the recipient of the message with the MAC also has the secret key, the recipient can verify authenticity of the message, which is the second feature included in the RFC's term "reliable". This means that the message could only have been sent by someone with the same key. 24

25 The record layer fragments information blocks into TLS Plaintext records (Record PDUs) carrying data in chunks of 2^14 bytes or less. Client message boundaries are not preserved in the record layer (i.e., multiple client messages of the same ContentType may be coalesced into a single TLSPlaintext record, or a single message may be fragmented across several records). Application data is segmented into Application Data Segments and packed into Record PDUs. The Application Data in the Record PDU may be compressed. (However, compression is not often used.) Each PDU is integrity checked with a keyed Message Authentication Code (MAC). Then the packet is padded to a length which fits to the encryption scheme. The padding data is added to force the length of the plaintext to be an integral multiple of the block cipher's block length. The padding may be any length up to 255 bytes long, as long as it results in the TLSCiphertext.length being an integral multiple of the block length. Each unit in the padding data vector must be filled with the padding length value. Legal values range from zero to 255, inclusive. This length specifies the length of the padding field itself. Length: Length of Application data (excluding the protocol header, and the MAC and padding trailers) MAC: 20 bytes for the SHA-1-based HMAC, 16 bytes for the MD5-based HMAC. Padding: Variable length ; last byte contains the padding length 25

26 TLS Handshake Protocol The TLS session state is controlled by the TLS handshake protocol that runs on top of the TLS record layer. When a TLS client and a TLS server first start communicating, they agree on a protocol version, select cryptographic algorithms, optionally authenticate each other, and use public-key encryption techniques to generate shared secrets. The client starts with a ClientHello message to which the server must respond with a ServerHello message otherwise a fatal error occurs and the connection fails. The following attributes are established: Protocol Version, Session ID, Cipher Suite, and Compression Method. Additionally, two random values are generated and exchanged ClientHello-Random R C and ServerHello-Random R S. Next the server usually sends its X.509 server certificate in an optional Certificate message. If no certificate is sent, then an optional ServerKeyExchange message may be sent instead, containing the server part of a Diffie-Hellman (DH) secret. If the server insists on a client side authentication an optional CertificateRequest message is appended. The server indicates the end of the server hello phase by sending a ServerHelloDone message. If the server has sent a CertificateRequest message, the client must send either its X.509 client certificate in a Certificate message or a no certificate alert. If the client has received a server certificate containing the server s public RSA key, the client encrypts a randomly chosen premaster secret with it and sends it to the server in a ClientKeyExchange message. Alternatively the clients can send its part of a DH key exchange. Each side can now form a shared master secret. The client then emits a ChangeCipherSpec message announcing that the new parameters have been loaded, followed by a Finished message already encrypted with the new settings. The server does the same on its side. The encrypted exchange of application data can now be started. Source: Stephen Thomas, SSL and TLS Essentials, Wiley Computer Publishing 26

27 Resuming a TLS Session When the client and server decide to resume a previous session or duplicate an existing session (instead of negotiating new security parameters) the message flow is as follows: The client sends a ClientHello using the Session ID of the session to be resumed. The server then checks its session cache for a match. If a match is found, and the server is willing to re-establish the connection under the specified session state, it will send a ServerHello with the same Session ID value. Using the cached master secret and the fresh client hello and server hello nonces, new session key material is generated. At this point, both client and server must send change cipher spec messages and proceed directly to the finished messages. Once the re-establishment is complete, the client and server may begin to exchange application layer data. If a Session ID match is not found, the server generates a new session ID and the TLS client and server perform a full handshake. Source: RFC 2246 TLS Protocol Version

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