Tree, Segment Table, and Route Bucket: A Multistage Algorithm for IPv6 Routing Table Lookup

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1 Tree, Segment Table, and Route Bucket: A Multistage Algorithm for IPv6 Routing Table Lookup Zhenqiang LI Dongqu ZHENG Yan MA School of Computer Science and Technology Network Information Center Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications Beijing, 1876, People s Republic of China {lizq, zhengdq}@buptnet.edu.cn mayan@bupt.edu.cn Abstract Next generation internet protocol, IPv6, has attracted growing attention and has been deploying worldwide. With 128-bit address, IPv6 provides an extremely large address space and poses a great challenge to the routing table lookup algorithms. Today s efficient IPv4 routing table lookup schemes can hardly be competent for IPv6. In this paper, we propose a multi-stage IPv6 routing table lookup algorithm based on a sufficient study on the characteristics of the IPv6 address structure, the IPv6 address allocation policies, and the real world IPv6 backbone BGP routing tables. The proposed algorithm combines the binary tree, the segment table, and the route bucket other than adopting single technique as previous schemes do. Compared with previous algorithms, the proposed algorithm performs faster, occupies less memory, scales better, and supports incremental update. Index Terms Algorithms, IPv6, Multi-stage, Routing Table Lookup D I. INTRODUCTION UE to the fast growth of the Internet, the shortage of IP addresses is becoming a more pressing issue. This has brought the academia and the industry growing interests in the next generation internet protocol, known as IPv6 [1]. With 128-bit address, IPv6 provides 3.4*1 38 addresses theoretically. Besides, IPv6 is expected to accommodate the worldwide explosion in Internet usage, to improve end-to-end security, to facilitate mobile communications, to provide new enhancements to quality of service, and to ease system management burdens. IPv6, however, does not change the data plane functions of a router. When a packet is arriving, the IPv6 router still has to extract the destination IP address from the packet and do longest prefix matching (LPM) in the routing table to decide the next hop to forward the receiving packet. In fact, the 128-bit IPv6 address poses a great challenge to the previous LPM algorithms, such as [2-6], because previous algorithms were particularly designed for 32-bit IPv4 address, and had poor scalability to the length of IP address. The popular multi-bit trie based algorithm, DIR-24-8-BASIC [3], for example, has constant search time for IPv4. However, its exponentially increased memory requirement and prolonged search time with the length of the IP address make it unsuitable for IPv6 implementation. Moreover, the next generation Internet is expected to be a simpler global network with increasing link speed and increasing Internet traffic with decreasing packet sizes due to the increasing multimedia applications such as voice over IP and IPTV. All of these demand even more efficient algorithms for IPv6 LPM. In this paper, we introduce a LPM scheme particularly designed for 128-bit IPv6 address. Based on the observations on the IPv6 address structure, IPv6 address allocation policies, and real world IPv6 backbone BGP routing tables, we propose a multi-stage IPv6 routing table lookup algorithm which combines three data structures: the binary tree, the segment table, and the route bucket. The previous schemes, on the contrary, usually adopted one technique. [3], for instance, mainly used segment table and multi-bit trie was employed in [4]. By using three techniques, the proposed algorithm features in faster lookup speed, less memory consumption, better scalability, and incremental update support. The evaluation results show that the sample software implementation of the proposed scheme only needs several hundreds of kilobytes memory for the current real world IPv6 backbone BGP routing tables and can achieve 16 million lookups per second (1Gbps for 8-byte minimal IPv6 packet) on a PC with one Pentium4 2.4GHz CPU, 512M DDR333 memory, and Linux operating system. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. Section II presents a number of informative observations. Section III describes the proposed multi-stage scheme and its scalability. The evaluation results are introduced in Section IV. Finally, the conclusion is drawn in Section V. A. Structure of IPv6 address II. OBSERVATIONS The latest format of IPv6 global unicast address defined in RFC3587, as shown in Fig. 1, includes 3 parts: 45-bit global routing prefix ( the first three bits should always be 1 ), 16-bit subnet ID, and 64-bit interface ID. The global routing prefix identifies a site, the subnet ID identifies a subnet in a specific site, and the interface ID specifies a network interface in a subnet represented in the Modified EUI-64 format. Usually, only the global routing prefix and the subnet ID, X/7/$ IEEE 2426

2 totally accounting for 64 bits, are used for routing. Thus, routing entries with prefix lengths longer than 64 bits are seldom in the IPv6 backbone BGP routing tables (More details are available in the subsection C of this section) bits 16 bits 64 bits 1 global routing prefix subnet ID interface ID Fig. 1. The format of IPv6 global unicast address B. Allocation policies for IPv6 address Responsibility for management of IPv6 address spaces is distributed globally in accordance with the hierarchical structure shown in Fig. 2. The top level of the hierarchy is Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), which allocates global unicast IPv6 addresses of /23 to Regional Internet Registries (RIRs). RIRs in turn allocate addresses of /32 to subordinate address agencies, ISPs (Internet Service Providers) or LIRs (Local Internet Registries). EUs (End Users) will generally be given /48, sometimes /64 or /128 assignments according to their requirements and scales. EU(ISP) RIR ISP/LIR IANA EU RIR NIR ISP/LIR EU Internet Assigned Numbers Authority Regional Internet Registries National Internet Registries (APNIC Region ) Internet Service Provider / Local Internet Registries End Users Fig. 2. IP address allocation hierarchy Moreover, some authorities have established the regulations to guide IPv6 address allocation, such as IAB/IESG recommendations on IPv6 address allocation 1 and the IPv6 address allocation and assignment policy 2 issued jointly by RIRs. This makes IPv6 routing tables to present clear hierarchies (More details are available in the following subsection). Different hierarchies have different characteristics and thus are suitable for different data structures, on which our multi-stage algorithm is rooted. C. Characteristics of real IPv6 backbone BGP routing tables To make the observations, we collected 6 BGP routing tables from IPv6 backbone network on July 3, 26. Four of them are from four different peers (Vatican, United Kingdom, USA, and Japan) in the RouteViews project 3 and the other two are from Tilab 4 and Potaroo 5 respectively. The prefix length distributions are listed in Table I, from which we can see that: 1) the number of routing entries in a routing table is less than 1 now; 2) most of the prefix lengths are less than 64 bits (only 1 exception with 128-bit-long prefix in the 6 routing tables); 3) there is no prefix with prefix length less than 16 (The length route in Japan table is the 1 ftp://ftp.ripe.net/rfc/rfc3177.txt default route); 4) the routes peak at lengths of 32, 35, and 48, the bolded rows in the table; 5) the total number of unique prefix lengths in the combined distribution is 2, greatly less than the length of IPv6 address, 128. TABLE I PREFIX LENGTH DISTRIBUTIONS OF THE REAL WORLD IPV6 ROUTING TABLES Tilab Potaroo VA UK USA Japan Besides, we also find that: 1) there are only a few different values for the first 16 bits (9 for the 6 routing tables we used: x21, x22, x23, x24, x244, x261, x28, x2a1, and x3ffe); 2) most of the routing prefixes begin with x21, routing prefixes begin with other values are very few (usually no more than 64); 3) the nd bits of routing prefixes beginning with same first 16 bits differentiate greatly, i.e., routing prefixes with the same value for the nd bits are very few. As shown in Fig. 3, most of the values for the nd bits of routing prefixes beginning with x21 have only one prefix. The maximum number of prefixes for a given vale is 15. 8% of the values have not been covered by any prefix yet. Number of routing entries Routing table from: The value of 17-32ed bits Fig. 3. Distinctness of the nd bits of prefixes beginning with x21 Based on these observations, we can see that there are 2427

3 several hierarchies in the IPv6 routing tables and different hierarchy is suitable for different organization. Details are elaborated in the following section. A. Data Structure III. THE PROPOSED ALGORITHM Based on the observations expounded in the previous section, we propose a 3-stage algorithm for IPv6 routing table lookup. The overall data structure is illustrated in Fig. 4. This algorithm is called TSB, because binary Tree, Segment table, and route Bucket are used. Stage 1 Segment table Stage 2 Route bucket Binary Tree Stage a1 Fig. 4. The overall data structure of the proposed 3-stage algorithm The first stage is a binary tree rooted at node x21. The binary tree is constructed using the first 16 bits of the routing prefixes. Due to no routing entry with prefix length less than 16, only exact matching is need in the binary tree. Further, the depth of the binary tree is small because there are only a few different values for the first 16 bits. Because most of the addresses of the packets in current IPv6 network begin with x21, we choose x21 as the root node. Thus, only one matching on the root node in the binary tree is needed for the majority of the network traffic, which improves the performance of the algorithm. We can change the root of the binary tree according to the traffic pattern of the specific network to which our scheme is applied. Segment table or route bucket (we explain it later) is used in the second stage. Which data structure to be used is decided by a predefined threshold, say 16, 32, 64, or 128. When the number of routing entries is greater than the threshold, segment table is the choice, otherwise, route bucket. The threshold is used to trade off between the lookup performance and the memory consumption. The reason for using two different data structures in the second stage is to make full use of the characteristics of the IPv6 routing tables to reduce the memory consumption of TSB. The 16-bit-wide segment table consists of 2 16 entries constituted by the nd bits of the routing prefixes. Although the 16-bit-wide segment table seems memory inefficient because 8% of the values of the nd bits have not been covered by any prefix (refer to Fig. 3), it is very effective and has very good scalability to the future IPv6 network. It is effective in that, the values of the nd bits can differentiate the routing entries efficiently, as shown in Fig. 3. More than 9% values of the nd bits are covered by only one or zero prefix. Thus, mostly the segment table needs only one index to complete the lookup. Usually only several routing prefixes (at most 15 in Fig. 3) are left for a route bucket to handle in the third stage. The scalability of the 16-bit-wide segment table is manifest. 9% of the entries in the segment table that contain zero or one routing entry have the extra capacity to accommodate the future incoming prefixes. The third stage is only needed when an entry in the segment table contains more than one route prefix. The number of routing entries left to be search in this stage is small. So, simple approaches are satisfied, such as linear search, binary search on prefix interval [7], etc. In our scheme, route bucket represents the organization of the third stage. It is also used in the second stage when the number of route prefixes stored in a node in the binary tree is less than the threshold. In essence, route bucket is a collection of routing entries with specific organization. The specific way the route bucket is organized depends on both the number of routing entries it stores and the tradeoff between memory requirement and lookup performance. Route buckets used in different stages care about different bit positions. In the second stage, route bucket concerns the th bits, while in the third stage, route bucket cares about the th bits. B. Routing Lookup Given the data structure, the search process of our scheme is straightforward. The pseudo code is shown in Fig. 5. To complete an IPv6 LPM lookup using TSB, at most an exact matching in the binary tree, a direct location in the segment table, and a probe in the route bucket are needed. 1 searchtsb(dstip) { 2 BMP = next hop of default route; 3 key1 = the 1-16 th bits of dstip; 4 node = exact matching in binary tree with key1; 5 if (!node) return BMP; 6 BMP = node.nexthop; 7 if (!node.ptr) return BMP; 8 if (the type of node.ptr == route bucket) { 9 key2 = the th bits of dstip; 1 return searchbucket(node.ptr, key2); 11 } 12 else { 13 key3 = the nd bits of dstip; 14 entry = node.ptr + key3; 15 BMP = entry->nexthop; 16 if (!entry->bucket) return BMP; 17 key4 = the th bits of dstip; 18 return searchbucket(entry->bucket, key4); 19 } 2} Fig. 5. The lookup pseudo code for the proposed algorithm C. Routing Update TSB supports incremental update. 1) Insertion: For adding a routing entry, say R, we first find the position to insert by looking up R in TSB data structure. There are 3 types of possible positions to add R. R should be placed in the binary tree. This is the easy case according to the characteristics of the tree data structure. R should be placed in segment table. This is a complicated 2428

4 case because prefix expansion [8] may be needed. When the prefix length of R is shorter than 32, we need to expand the prefix to 32-bit-long. Assume the prefix length of R is L, 17<=L<=32, and the value of the 17-L th bits is V. We have to check the successive 2 32-L entries in the segment table beginning from the 2 Vth entry. For each entry to be checked, we compare L with the prefix length, L, stored in it. If L>=L, replace L with L and store R in this entry; otherwise, compare the next entry. R should be placed in route bucket. Insert R in the route bucket according to the way the route bucket is organized. If the number of routing entries stored in it reaches the threshold after the insertion, this route bucket should be replaced by a segment table. 2) Deletion: Deleting a routing entry from the TSB data structure is similar to the insertion. 3 kinds of cases exist: the entry should be deleted from the binary tree, or from the segment table, or from the route bucket. Details are omitted due to the limit space. D. Discussion Strictly speaking, our approach represents a class of algorithms, rather than a specific one. Specifically, by varying the value of the threshold and by using different organizations for the first, second, and third stage, one can obtain different instantiations of the algorithm. In this essence, the multi-stage algorithm proposed in this paper is a framework. For the first stage, the following approaches can be used: 1) the ordinary binary tree without any improvement; 2) Heightbalanced binary tree to enhance the worst case lookup performance in the tree; 3) the binary tree rooted in the node that the majority of the Internet traffic potentially match, just as we do in this paper; 4) the dynamic weighted binary tree adapting its shape according to the probabilities with which the various nodes of the tree are accessed by incoming packets in order to speedup the average lookup performance. For the segment table, different sizes can be used to trade off between the lookup performance and memory consumption. The size of 16 bits is used in this paper. Alternatives are 2, 4, and 8 bits. Larger segment table outperforms the smaller one in lookup speed, but consumes more memory. For the route bucket, the specific method used depends on the number of routing entries stored in it, which in turn depends on the threshold. The ways to organize the route bucket can be: 1) linear search; 2) TCAM (Ternary Content Addressable Memory); 3) binary search on prefix interval [7]; 4) binary search on routing entries [9]. IV. EVALUATION RESULTS We do a lot of evaluations, using both real IPv6 routing tables and synthesized ones. The synthesized routing tables with different sizes are generated to test the scalability of our scheme because the current IPv6 routing tables are small (see Table I). Evaluations are done using both real packet trace 6 and the generated IPv6 addresses with different traffic patterns. The 6 packet trace we used is a one day trace that was collected on July 15, 26, containing 2,, packets. The number of generated IPv6 addresses for each test run is one million. Only parts of test results are shown here due to the page limitation. All the tests are done on a PC with one Pentium GHz CPU, 512M DDR333 memory, and Red Hat Enterprise Linux Advanced Server 4.. The performance of TSB is compared with that of unibit trie, Patricia [1], 4-bit trie, and RST [11]. A. Evaluation results using real world IPv6 routing tables 1) Memory consumption: As we can see from Table Ⅱ, for the current real IPv6 backbone BGP routing tables, our scheme only needs about 4 kilobytes memory, while RST requires about 65 kilobytes. Because at least one segment table, which consumes 64K*sizeof(table entry) bytes memory, has to be constructed for the routing entries beginning with x21, the memory consumption of TSB is larger than that of unibit trie, Patricia, and 4-bit trie. TABLE Ⅱ MEMORY CONSUMPTION USING REAL IPV6 BACKBONE ROUTING TABLES (KB) TSB RST 1-bit trie Patricia 4-bit trie Japan Potaroo USA VA Tilab UK ) Lookup speed: Here we only present the comparison results using the generated IPv6 addresses in Fig. 6. The verification addresses are not generated purely randomly. 8% of them are generated based on the corresponding routing table. Fig. 6 shows that our scheme has the best lookup performance. Under our test circumstance, TSB can achieve more than 1 Million Lookups per Second (MLPS), which satisfies the minimal packet wire speed forwarding requirements of 1Gbps routers (The minimal IPv6 packet size is 8 bytes). Lookup time (ns) TSB RST 1bit Trie Patricia 4bit Trie Japan Potaroo USA VA Tilab UK Routing table Fig. 6. Lookup performance using real IPv6 backbone routing tables B. Scalability tests using synthesized IPv6 routing tables To test the scalability of our scheme and its adaptability to the future IPv6 network, we create several IPv6 routing tables with different sizes by v6gen [12]. The prefix length distribution of the synthesized IPv6 routing table with 1K routing entries is depicted in Fig. 7. Other synthesized routing tables have similar prefix length distribution. 2429

5 Number of prefixes (log scale) Prefix length Fig. 7. The prefix length distribution of the synthesized IPv6 routing table with 1K routing entries RST has poor scalability. When the number of routing entries exceeds 2, the significantly prolonged preprocessing time and the exploded memory requirement prevent RST from implementation. Thus, we do not use RST to do comparison in this subsection. 1) Memory consumption: As shown in Fig. 8, Patricia has the best scalability (Its scalability for lookup speed, however, is poor as shown in Fig. 9), TSB holds the second position. For the routing table with 2K routing entries, which is comparable with the size of current IPv4 routing table, TSB only needs 9MB memory. Memory consumption (MB) TSB 1bit trie Patricia 4bit trie Number of routing entries (K, log scale) Fig. 8. Memory consumption using the synthesized IPv6 routing tables 2) Lookup speed: TSB has the best scalability for lookup speed, which we can see from Fig. 9. Here we only show the comparison results using real packet trace (The results in Fig. 6 are obtained using generated IPv6 addresses). When the routing table has 2K routing entries, TSB can still complete more than 6 million lookups in one second. This satisfies the wire speed forwarding requirements of a 4Gbps router. Lookup time (ns) TSB Patricia 1bit trie 4bit trie V. CONCLUSION Based on a sufficient study on the characteristics of IPv6 address structure, IPv6 address allocation policies, and real world IPv6 backbone BGP routing tables, we find that there are hierarchies in the IPv6 routing tables and different hierarchy is suitable for different data structure. Thus, we propose a multi-stage algorithm, TSB, to do IPv6 LPM lookup. TSB combines the binary tree, the segment table, and the route bucket. This scheme performs faster, occupies less memory, scales better, and supports incremental update. The evaluations are done using both real world IPv6 backbone routing tables and synthetically created routing tables. For each kind of routing tables, we do the experiments using not only generated IPv6 addresses, but also the real world packet trace collected from the backbone of the IPv6 network (only parts of the results are presented in this paper due to space limitation). The evaluation results show that, using the synthesized IPv6 routing table with 2K routing entries and the real packet trace, the sample software implementation of our scheme can achieve 5MLPS (4Gbps for 8-bypte minimal IPv6 packet) on a PC with one Pentium4 2.4GHz CPU, 512M DDR333 memory, and Linux operating system. REFERENCES [1] S. Deering and R. Hinden, Internet protocol version 6 specification, RFC246, Dec [2] M. Degermark, A. Brodnik, S. Carlsson, and S. Pink, Small forwarding tables for fast routing lookups, in ACM SIGCOMM, pp. 3 14, [3] P. Gupta, S. Lin, and N. McKeown, Routing lookups in hardware at memory access speed, in IEEE INFOCOM, pp , April [4] S. Nilsson and G. Karlsson, "IP-address lookup using LC-tries," IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications, vol.17, No.6, pp , Jun [5] W. Eatherton, Z. Dittia, and G. Varghese, Tree bitmap: hardware/ software IP lookups with incremental updates, ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review, vol. 34, No. 2, pp , 24 [6] M. Sundstrom, and L. Larzon, High-Performance Longest Prefix Matching supporting High-Speed Incremental Updates and Guaranteed Compression, in IEEE INFOCOM, 25 [7] B. Lampson, V. Srinivasan, and G. Varghese, IP lookups using multiway and multicolumn search, IEEE/ACM Transactions on Networking, vol. 7, no. 3, pp , [8] V. Srinivasan and G. Varghese, Fast Address Lookups using Controlled Prefix Expansion, in ACM Sigmetrics, pp. 1 11, Jun [9] P. Mehrotra and P. D. Franzon, Binary search schemes for fast IP lookups, in IEEE GLOBECOM, 22 [1] K. Sklower, A tree-based packet routing table for Berkeley Unix, in 1991 Winter USENIX Conference, Dallas, USA, pp , [11] Z. Li, X. Deng, H. Ma, and Y. Ma, Divide-and-conquer: a scheme for IPv6 address longest prefix matching, in IEEE Workshop on High Performance Switching and Routing, pp , Jun. 26. [12] K. Zheng and B. Liu, "V6Gene: A scalable IPv6 prefix generator for route lookup algorithm benchmark," in IEEE AINA, Vienna, Austria, pp , Apr. 18-2, Number of routing entries (K, log scale) Fig. 9. Lookup performance using the synthesized IPv6 routing tables 243

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