Network: infrastructure (hard/software) that enables endpoints (hosts) to communicate
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1 221 7 (Inter)Networking Network: infrastructure (hard/software) that enables endpoints (hosts) to communicate Internetwork: system of two or more networks (segments), connected via gateways, which enables endpoints in each member network to communicate transparently The Internet currently is the global internetwork 1968/9: ARPA project to connect supercomputers (first node UCLA) 1969: four nodes in ARPANET, dedicated lines; 1971: fifteen nodes : network split into ARPANET, MILNET: both use TCP/IP 1990s: number of connected machines doubles every year See
2 Internetwork 222 Example (internetwork with two segments): token ring gateway Ethernet The gateway is a multihomed host: gateway is member of both networks gateway computer is equipped with two network interface cards
3 Connecting network segments 223 There exist multiple variants of how to connect two networks: Repeater: amplifies and copies any electrical signal (including noise) from one network to the other Bridge: copies frames (see below) between segments, can interpret frame data and drops frames which are not addressed to other segment Router: copies packets (see below) between segments, can interpret final destination address and has routing tables to optimize packet route Gateway: generic term, encompassing hardware (repeater, bridge, router) and software (router)
4 Protocols and layering 224 All hosts on a (inter)network use the same protocol to initiate communication and transfer data Due to their complexity, network protocols are best understood if viewed as a stack of protocol layers: lower protocol layers are concerned with the electrical/physical details of data communication upper protocol layers provide the possibility to send/receive byte streams to/from remote hosts
5 Protocol Layers 225 The most widespread model of protocol layers is the 7-layer OSI model Here, we will work with a 4-layer protocol stack: Process Process Transport Transport Network Network Data Link Physical Network Data Link
6 Protocol layers Process Networking applications: clients and servers for protocols like HTTP, SMTP, FTP, NNTP, IRC,... 2 Transport Sessions of byte streams from host to host: TCP 16, UDP 17, NetBIOS,... 3 Network Addressing, routing, fragmentation: IP 18, ICMP 19, ARP 20,... 4 Data Link Physical network media: ATM, Ethernet, Bluetooth, IRDA, Modem (PPP, SLIP),... The Internet uses the TCP/IP or UDP/IP protocols on layers 2 / 3 16 Transmission Control Protocol 17 User Datagram Protocol 18 Internet Protocol 19 Internet Control Message Protocol 20 Address Resolution Protocol
7 Protocol example: TFTP 227 Example (TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol): TFTP (RFC ) is used to bi-directionally transfer files between hosts, no directory listing, password authentication as in FTP X-Terminals use TFTP to download operating system software from a boot server every time the terminals start up TFTP is based on UDP which, in turn, is based on IP 21 See
8 TFTP and protocol layers 228 TFTP server TFTP protocol TFTP client UDP UDP protocol UDP IP IP protocol IP Ethernet Ethernet protocol physical connection Ethernet Connections between layers 1 3 of the TFTP protocol are virtual only Replacing layer 4 by, e.g., PPP, does not affect layers 1 3
9 Example: speaking the SMTP protocol 229 The process layer 1 abstracts from any networking communcation details and is completely application oriented Example (layer 1 of SMTP, simple mail transfer protocol connect to SMTP server on this host via telnet): $ telnet localhost smtp Trying Connected to localhost. Escape character is ^]. 220 phobos10.inf.uni-konstanz.de ESMTP Postfix HELO grust@inf.uni-konstanz.de 250 phobos10.inf.uni-konstanz.de MAIL FROM: teggy@teggy.org 250 Ok RCPT TO: grust@inf.uni-konstanz.de 250 Ok DATA 354 End data with <CR><LF>.<CR><LF> Hi there Ok: queued as B353B43EA2 QUIT 221 Bye Connection closed by foreign host.
10 Network Byte Order 230 Different hardware architectures store words (16- or 32-bit values) in varying byte orders A 16-bit word consists of low- and high-order byte Example: Two common storage formats for a 16-bit word 0x1234 stored at address a: little-endian: big-endian: Address a a + 1 Address a a + 1 byte 0x34 0x12 byte 0x12 0x34 Even more storage format variants for 32-bit words TCP/IP protocol data follows the big endian format (Unix: conversion via C library functions ntohs, ntohl and htons, htonl)
11 Encapsulation 231 To communicate a chunk of application/user data, each protocol layer adds/strips header information specific to that layer Layer n regards the header information of layer m, m < n, as data (which layer n won t interpret) data TFTP header data TFTP message UDP header TFTP header UDP message data IP header UDP header IP packet TFTP header data Bytes Ethernet header IP header UDP header TFTP header data Ethernet trailer Ethernet frame n 4
12 Packet Switching 232 Communication networks fall into one of the two following categories: Circuit-switched Well-known example: telephone network. To communicate, switchboards are used to eastablish a direct, physical link used exclusively by the communication endpoints Packet-switched Large number of hosts share the same physical media (wires). Data is split into packets which are sent separately interleaved with packets of other connections. Packets carry sequence numbers: Network layer 2 uses sequence numbers to fragment and reassemble large packages Transport layer 3 uses sequence numbers to detect and retransmit lost packages, to re-order out-of-order packages
13 Routing Each packet carries a destination address in the network layer 3 header (Internet: IP header) 233 Network layer routes packets to its destination: host 2 gate 1 net 3 net 1 net 2 host 1 gate 3 Packets of the same connection may follow different routes (congestion, outage) and may overtake each other gate 2
14 Tracing a route 234 Unix command tracepath outputs the list of those gateways that forward an IP packet to a given destination address: $ /usr/sbin/tracepath 1: c-7507-v03-02.rz.uni-konstanz.de ( ) 1.670ms 2: c-6509-v03-03.rz.uni-konstanz.de ( ) 1.789ms 3: ( ) 2.381ms 4: Stuttgart1.belwue.de ( ) 8.908ms 5: Stuttgart2.BelWue.DE ( ) 8.809ms 6: ar-stuttgart2-ge6-0-0.g-win.dfn.de ( ) 9.411ms 7: cr-stuttgart1-ge5-0.g-win.dfn.de ( ) 9.438ms 8: cr-frankfurt1-po8-0.g-win.dfn.de ( ) ms 9: cr-hannover1-po3-1.g-win.dfn.de ( ) ms 10: ar-goettingen1-po0-0.g-win.dfn.de ( ) ms 11: ar-goettingen2-ge0-0-0.g-win.dfn.de ( ) ms 12: 7200vxr.rz.tu-clausthal.de ( ) ms 13: sr-backbone.rz.tu-clausthal.de ( ) ms 14: ( ) ms reached Indicates round-trip-time (time needed to send IP packet to host and back) tracepath uses ttl (time-to-live) header in IP protocol header
15 Network Addresses 235 The actual endpoints of any connection are processes running on (not necessarily distinct) hosts. These hosts may be members of different networks. A complete network address consists of three parts: Network and host are identified by unique network and host identifiers Processes are identified by so-called port numbers All common application protocols have been assigned fixed port numbers Example: a connection to a host s port 25 reaches the SMTP server on that host, port 22 is associated with the SSH protocol
16 /etc/services: Protocol port mapping 236 # Network services, Internet style # This list could be found on: # echo 7/tcp Echo echo 7/udp Echo systat 11/tcp users # Active Users systat 11/udp users # Active Users ftp-data 20/tcp # File Transfer [Default Data] ftp 21/tcp # File Transfer [Control] ssh 22/tcp # SSH Remote Login Protocol smtp 25/tcp mail # Simple Mail Transfer time 37/tcp # Time tftp 69/udp # Trivial File Transfer finger 79/tcp # Finger http 80/tcp # World Wide Web HTTP pop3 110/tcp # Post Office Protocol - Version 3 ident 113/tcp auth # Authentication Service nntp 119/tcp # Network News Transfer Protocol... Can use telnet to open a TCP connection to any port on a given host: telnet host port
17 Internet addresses 237 IP encodes the network and host ID of a network address in a single 32-bit word An IP address is formatted according to one of the following classes: 7 bits 24 bits Class A 0 net ID host ID 14 bits 16 bits Class B 1 0 net ID host ID 21 bits 8 bits Class C net ID host ID Usually, net IDs are assigned to organizations (companies, universities, etc.) by ICANN ( host IDs inside a net are assigned by the organizations themselves
18 Internet addresses 238 The 32 bits of an internet address are most commonly written in the widely known dotted format Example (dotted format of internet address 0x0102FF04): Example: The mail server of the U Konstanz CS department has been assigned internet address , in binary 10 }{{} class B }{{} net ID }{{} subnet ID }{{} host ID U Konstanz has been assigned the class B network, inside which 2 16 = hosts can be addressed The CS department administers the 2 8 = 256 hosts in the sub-network
19 Routing 239 When a gateway passes a packet on, it inspects the packet s destination address to make a routing decision: 1 The destination host is part of the gateway s network (e.g., on the same Ethernet LAN) directly send packet to destination 2 The packet itself carries a detailed route (source routing) gateway simply passes packet on accordingly 3 Otherwise, the gateway consults its routing table to select an appropriate route
20 Routing Tables 240 Example (routing table of a Unix host): $ netstat -r Routing tables Destination Gateway Flags Use Netif default UGSc 108 eth :0:c:7:f1:de UHLW 0 eth0 titan03 8:0:20:87:9e:59 UHLW 20 eth0 phobos11 8:0:20:81:48:e9 UHLW eth0 phobos10 loopback UGHS 26 lo0 If the destination host itself is found in the routing table, send the packet directly If the destinations host s network is found, forward the packet to that network Otherwise, use the default gateway For efficiency reasons, the routing table stores the 48-bit Ethernet address for all hosts on the local Ethernet LAN
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