Outline. Addressing on the network layer ICMP IPv6 Addressing on the link layer Virtual circuits
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- Erick Eaton
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1 Lecture 2
2 Outline Addressing on the network layer ICMP IPv6 Addressing on the link layer Virtual circuits
3 TCP/IP protocol suite Good name for our book! User application, e.g., http with Mozilla Communication for each appl. layer process on computer Find the route over the planet to the destination Computer/network entity to computer/network entity, access control, error control, addressing Map digital bits to analog waveforms (modulation), and let these propagate to destination
4 Encapsulation H5 Data H4 Data H3 Data H2 Data Waveform Physical link layer Every new layer encapsulates previous layer data with a header Now: Addressing: How are we able to send packets to the right destinations?
5 Network layer: Basic router problem: which way should packets travel through a network? v w u z x y
6 Router services Forwarding: Delivery of datagram from a router input link to the right router output link Routing: Find the best full paths to destinations, and fill out the forwarding tables.
7 IPv4 addressing: Classless interdomain routing (CIDR) addressing Each host is assigned a 32-bit IP address billion possible addresses/hosts. Dotted decimal notation, e.g., Some organizations have been assigned too many addresses. We are running out of IPv4 addresses! An IP datagram has a source and a destination address
8 CIDR subnets Prefix Suffix Common for all computers in subnet Differentiate between computers in subnet Format: a.b.c.d/x First address in subnet usually Format example: /24 Subnet mask = prefix length in bits, decides how big the subnet is are fix for the subnet. The last entry can vary between 0 and 255.
9 Subnetting 18 leftmost bits fixed in this subnet
10 Forwarding: Storage and search of forwarding tables in routers The IP addresses are ordered in a hierarchical manner with: - geografically closely situated computers belonging to the same subnet. - at a router, an interface has a subnet connected to it. This means that we can hold a network-specific table with small storage space, and which is easily searched, for forwarding in routers send on interface A send on interface B send on interface C Small tables are also achieved by: next-hop table only the next hop is stored
11 Routing= how to obtain the forwarding tables There are two basic protocols for obtaining shortest cost paths in networks, i.e., to answer, what is the shortest path from x to the other nodes? 5 u 1 2 v x w y z The link state routing (LSR) (uses Dijkstra's algorithm). Each node has to know all link costs in whole network. Basic implementation complexity = N^2, and N*E messages have to be transmitted, where N is the number of nodes, and E is the number of edges (complexity can be improved). The distance vector routing (DVR) (uses Bellman-Ford algorithm). Complexity varies. Affected by instability if link costs change. Costs can be different things, but are usually the number of traversed subnets between routers. 11
12 Routing problems and solutions Around 1 billion hosts in the Internet. Impossible to keep track of all at a single router! Solution: - The routers are divided into autonomous systems (AS)s. - Routers first find the way to the AS (obtain connecting router as well), then to the subnet, and then within the subnet. * Inter-AS-routing: Routing to ASs (cost is traversed ASs). * Intra-AS: Routing to subnets in the AS (cost is traversed subnets). * Within the subnets: no routing, simple procedure to be specified. All routers run both an inter-as, and an intra-as routing protocol Assume that there is only one host in every subnet. Rough LSR complexity=2*(10^5)^2 locally, instead of (10^9)^2. Good complexity reduction!
13 Inter-AS and intra-as-routing AS 1 Router Forwarding table at the router R : AS 1: via s33 (hot potato) AS 2: via s34 s31: via s32 s32: direct s33: direct s34: direct s35: via s34 s36: via s34 s31 s33 s32 R Subnet AS 3 s34 s35 s36 AS 2 Observe that 1) the forwarding table spans the whole network. 2) The 6 last entries are given by intra routing only. -The 2 first entries are given by inter and intra routing. -AS 1 is at equal distance from two routers. Then we find the best path by hot-potato routing, i.e., by only considering intra-costs 3) Intra-routing is performed by a possibly different protocol in each AS 4) Inter-routing is performed by the same protocol all over the network 5) It is easy to translate tables above to IPv4 address ranges.
14 Standards Intra-routing: Routing Information Protocol (RIP): DVR Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), LSR Inter-routing: Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), DVR, Experienced inter-networking professionals say Difficult to fully understand, needs years of training BGP de facto standard
15 More routing problems Is the AS complexity reduction good enough? Basic LSR complexity: 55000^2=3*10^9
16 ... and more solutions Route aggregation: Announce aggregated subnets to neighbors, i.e., we can run LSR/DVR with several ASs in the place of one Subdivide the Internet into a hierarchy with more than two levels. -basic LSR complexity: (10^9)^2 -with ASs:2*(10^5)^2 (local complexity for 1 router) -with a hierarchy with 5 levels: 5*(10^2)^2
17 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
18 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) The IP protocol is missing management possibilities, for example for checking if a router is up or down ICMP helps IP in this respect E.g., query messages, e.g., echo request or reply (PING command) ICMP messages are contained within standard IP datagrams
19 traceroute Uses a parameter Time To Live (TTL) in the IP header. Each router subtracts 1 from TTL. When TTL=0, the router does not forward the packet, but sends an ICMP error message back to the destination. Traceroute first sends a datagram with TTL=1, to get a message from the first router. Then it sends a datagram with TTL=2, to get a message from the second router. It continues like this until the final destination is reached, and traceroute can finally list the whole route with propagation delays to each router. The last stop is the destination. Here we use a wrong user datagram protocol (UDP) port to provoke an ICMP error message from the host- more above UDP in the next lecture! traceroute to google.com ( ), 30 hops max, 60 byte packets 1 isylogon.isy.liu.se ( ) ms 2 isy-gw.isy.liu.se ( ) ms ( ) ms 4 green-a.net.liu.se ( ) ms 5 liu-br2.sunet.se ( ) ms 6 m1tug-xe sunet.se ( ) ms 7 t1tug-ae1-v1.sunet.se ( ) ms 8 se-tug.nordu.net ( ) ms 9 se-tug2.nordu.net ( ) ms 10 google-gw.nordu.net ( ) ms ( ) ms ( ) ms ( ) ms 14 ber01s02-in-f106.1e100.net ( ) ms Try several network diagnostics tools online at
20 IPv6
21 IPv6 A new addressing system in IPv6: 128-bit addresses. 2^128=3.4*10^38 instead of 2^32=4.2*10^9 addresses in IPv4! New notation (hexadecimal colon notation) e.g., FDEC:BA33:0000:0000:FFCD:03F1:0000:0001 With zero compression: or FDEC:BA33::FFCD:3F1:0:1 IPv4 compatible, example: :: CIDR notation is supported: FDEC::14AB:0:AC6C/60 (i.e. here: 60 bit network prefix, 68 bit host suffix)
22 IPv4/IPv6-transition Three ways: Dual stack: All hosts implement both IPv4 and IPv6. Tunneling: Two computers want to communicate using IPv6 over a region that uses IPv4. The IPv6 packet is encapsulated inside an IPv4 packet. Header translation: Translate the IPv6 header to an IPv4 header before delivery on an IPv4 network.
23 Within the subnets
24 Addressing on individual links (link layer) Physical layer addresses: Each frame has a source and a destination physical layer address Common example: The standard (IEEE 802) format uses Media access control (MAC) addresses: 48-bit (6 bytes = 12 hexa-decimal digits), 07:01:02:01:2C:4B
25 Within the subnets Problem: physical layer address unknown Routers and hosts broadcast messages with the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP): Who has IP xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx? on the link layer, and gets answer from one host: I have IP xxx.xxx.xxx.xxx! I have physical layer address... ARP packets are directly put into link layer frames. The ARP broadcast messages are not spread between the different interfaces of routers, which is typically how the router is configuredbroadcast floods are avoided.
26 ARP E.g., IEEE Ethernet (CSMA-CD) LAN ARP broadcast request System A Request System B Looking for physical address of a node with IP address a. ARP request is multicast LAN ARP unicast response System A Reply System B The node physical address is A4:6E:F4:59:83:AB b. ARP reply is unicast
27 Link layer devices: Switches The switches do not process IP numbers at all. Self-learning: A switch remembers on which interface it has received a frame with a source physical layer address, and thereafter, it knows where this host is located. If the switch does not know on which interface a physical layer destination address is located, it broadcasts, except on the interface where it received the frame.
28 Physical layer and IP addresses The source/destination physical addresses change with every router link, but the IP source/destination addresses stay the same during transmission over the network! A switch never modifies the frame addresses
29 IP problems Assume that ARQ and FEC work perfectly on the link layer. The connection-less network layer introduces new problems: 1) Queues at the routers are congested: datagrams are dropped 2) Datagrams may be delayed because of router congestion as above Conclusion: The network layer destroys the safe delivery supplied by the link layer! This is because IP is not connection-oriented!
30 Virtual circuits Before sending the data packets, a virtual connection is established. For each connection, we accept only a certain number of packets per second. We can guarantee throughput, no packet loss, and low delay, i.e., quality of service (QoS)! When the router cannot handle more connections, it announces this as soon as a host tries to establish a new connection.
31 IPv6 has a label field for identifying virtual connections (faster processing than source and destination IP addresses)...
32 Integrated services (IntServ) IntServ is a standard supported by several RFCs Uses virtual circuits
33 Differentiated services (DiffServ) RFC 2474 Forouzan states that IntServ has a scalability problem in that the flows have to be reserved all over the planet - vs PSTN Forouzan says that DiffServ divides the packets into service classes as soon as they enter the network in the access networks to avoid scalability problems...
34 See whiteboard for extra example
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