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1 Link Layer (continued)

2 Where we are in the Course Moving on up to the Link Layer! Application Transport Network Link Physical CSE 461 University of Washington 2

3 Topics 1. Framing Delimiting start/end of frames 2. Error detection and correction Handling errors 3. Retransmissions Handling loss 4. Multiple Access , classic Ethernet 5. Switching Modern Ethernet CSE 461 University of Washington 3

4 Hamming Code Gives a method for constructing a code with a distance of 3 Uses n = 2 k k 1, e.g., n=4, k=3 Put check bits in positions p that are powers of 2, starting with position 1 Check bit in position p is parity of positions with a p term in their values CSE 461 University of Washington 4

5 Hamming Code (2) Example: data=0101, 3 check bits 7 bit code, check bit positions 1, 2, 4 Check 1 covers positions 1, 3, 5, 7 Check 2 covers positions 2, 3, 6, 7 Check 4 covers positions 4, 5, 6, p 1 = = 0, p 2 = = 1, p 4 = = 0 CSE 461 University of Washington 5

6 Hamming Code (3) To decode: Recompute check bits (with parity sum including the check bit) Arrange as a binary number Value (syndrome) tells error position Value of zero means no error Otherwise, flip bit to correct CSE 461 University of Washington 6

7 Hamming Code (4) Example, continued p 1 = = 0, p 2 = = 0, p 4 = = 0 Syndrome = 000, no error Data = CSE 461 University of Washington 7

8 Hamming Code (5) Example, continued p 1 = = 1, p 2 = = 1, p 4 = = 1 Syndrome = 1 1 1, flip position 7 Data = (correct after flip!) CSE 461 University of Washington 8

9 Detection vs. Correction Which is better will depend on the pattern of errors. For example: 1000 bit messages with a bit error rate (BER) of 1 in Which has less overhead? CSE 461 University of Washington 9

10 Detection vs. Correction Which is better will depend on the pattern of errors. For example: 1000 bit messages with a bit error rate (BER) of 1 in Which has less overhead? It still depends! We need to know more about the errors CSE 461 University of Washington 10

11 Detection vs. Correction (2) Assume bit errors are random Messages have 0 or maybe 1 error (1/10 of the time) Error correction: Need ~10 check bits per message Overhead: Error detection: Need ~1 check bits per message plus 1000 bit retransmission Overhead: CSE 461 University of Washington 11

12 Detection vs. Correction (3) Assume errors come in bursts of 100 Only 1 or 2 messages in 1000 have significant (multi-bit) errors Error correction: Need >>100 check bits per message Overhead: Error detection: Need 32 check bits per message plus 1000 bit resend 2/1000 of the time Overhead: CSE 461 University of Washington 12

13 Detection vs. Correction (4) Error correction: Needed when errors are expected Or when no time for retransmission Error detection: More efficient when errors are not expected And when errors are large when they do occur CSE 461 University of Washington 13

14 Error Correction in Practice Heavily used in physical layer LDPC is the future, used for demanding links like , DVB, WiMAX, LTE, powerline, Convolutional codes widely used in practice Error detection (w/ retransmission) is used in the link layer and above for residual errors Correction also used in the application layer Called Forward Error Correction (FEC) Normally with an erasure error model E.g., Reed-Solomon (CDs, DVDs, etc.) CSE 461 University of Washington 14

15 Retransmissions

16 Context on Reliability Where in the stack should we place reliability functions? Application Transport Network Link Physical CSE 461 University of Washington 16

17 Context on Reliability (2) Everywhere! It is a key issue Different layers contribute differently Application Transport Network Recover actions (correctness) Link Physical Mask errors (performance optimization) CSE 461 University of Washington 17

18 ARQ (Automatic Repeat request) ARQ often used when errors are common or must be corrected E.g., WiFi, and TCP (later) Rules at sender and receiver: Receiver automatically acknowledges correct frames with an ACK Sender automatically resends after a timeout, until an ACK is received CSE 461 University of Washington 18

19 ARQ (2) Normal operation (no loss) Timeout Sender Frame ACK Receiver Time CSE 461 University of Washington 19

20 ARQ (3) Loss and retransmission Timeout Sender Frame Receiver X Time Frame ACK CSE 461 University of Washington 20

21 So What s Tricky About ARQ? Two non-trivial issues: How long to set the timeout? How to avoid accepting duplicate frames as new frames Want performance in the common case and correctness always CSE 461 University of Washington 21

22 Timeouts Timeout should be: Not too big (link goes idle) Not too small (spurious resend) Fairly easy on a LAN Clear worst case, little variation Fairly difficult over the Internet Much variation, no obvious bound We ll revisit this with TCP (later) CSE 461 University of Washington 22

23 Duplicates What happens if an ACK is lost? Sender Frame Receiver Timeout X ACK CSE 461 University of Washington 23

24 Duplicates (2) What happens if an ACK is lost? Sender Frame Receiver Timeout New Frame?? X ACK Frame ACK CSE 461 University of Washington 24

25 Duplicates (3) Or the timeout is early? Sender Frame Receiver Timeout ACK CSE 461 University of Washington 25

26 Duplicates (4) Or the timeout is early? Sender Frame Receiver Timeout ACK New Frame?? Frame ACK CSE 461 University of Washington 26

27 Sequence Numbers Frames and ACKs must both carry sequence numbers for correctness To distinguish the current frame from the next one, a single bit (two numbers) is sufficient Called Stop-and-Wait CSE 461 University of Washington 27

28 Stop-and-Wait In the normal case: Sender Receiver Time CSE 461 University of Washington 28

29 Stop-and-Wait (2) In the normal case: Timeout Sender Receiver Frame 0 ACK 0 Time Frame 1 ACK 1 CSE 461 University of Washington 29

30 Stop-and-Wait (3) With ACK loss: Sender Receiver Frame 0 Timeout X ACK 0 CSE 461 University of Washington 30

31 Stop-and-Wait (4) With ACK loss: Timeout It s a Resend! Sender Receiver Frame 0 X ACK 0 Frame 0 ACK 0 CSE 461 University of Washington 31

32 Stop-and-Wait (5) With early timeout: Sender Frame 0 Receiver Timeout ACK 0 CSE 461 University of Washington 32

33 Stop-and-Wait (6) With early timeout: Sender Frame 0 Receiver Timeout ACK 0 OK Frame 0 ACK 0 It s a Resend CSE 461 University of Washington 33

34 Limitation of Stop-and-Wait It allows only a single frame to be outstanding from the sender: Good for LAN, not efficient for high BD Ex: R=1 Mbps, D = 50 ms How many frames/sec? If R=10 Mbps? CSE 461 University of Washington 34

35 Sliding Window Generalization of stop-and-wait Allows W frames to be outstanding Can send W frames per RTT (=2D) Various options for numbering frames/acks and handling loss Will look at along with TCP (later) CSE 461 University of Washington 35

36 Multiple Access

37 Topic Multiplexing is the network word for the sharing of a resource Classic scenario is sharing a link among different users Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) CSE 461 University of Washington 37

38 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) Users take turns on a fixed schedule CSE 461 University of Washington 38

39 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Put different users on different frequency bands Overall FDM channel CSE 461 University of Washington 39

40 TDM versus FDM In TDM a user sends at a high rate a fraction of the time; in FDM, a user sends at a low rate all the time Rate TDM FDM Time CSE 461 University of Washington 40

41 TDM versus FDM (2) In TDM a user sends at a high rate a fraction of the time; in FDM, a user sends at a low rate all the time Rate TDM FDM Time CSE 461 University of Washington 41

42 TDM/FDM Usage Statically divide a resource Suited for continuous traffic, fixed number of users Widely used in telecommunications TV and radio stations (FDM) GSM (2G cellular) allocates calls using TDM within FDM CSE 461 University of Washington 42

43 Multiplexing Network Traffic Network traffic is bursty ON/OFF sources Load varies greatly over time Rate R Rate R Time Time CSE 461 University of Washington 43

44 Multiplexing Network Traffic (2) Network traffic is bursty Inefficient to always allocate user their ON needs with TDM/FDM Rate R Rate R Time Time CSE 461 University of Washington 44

45 Multiplexing Network Traffic (3) Multiple access schemes multiplex users according to demands for gains of statistical multiplexing Rate Rate Two users, each need R R Rate R <2R Time R Time Time Together they need R < 2R CSE 461 University of Washington 45

46 Random Access How do nodes share a single link? Who sends when, e.g., in WiFI? Explore with a simple model Assume no-one is in charge Distributed system CSE 461 University of Washington 46

47 Random Access (2) We will explore random multiple access control (MAC) protocols This is the basis for classic Ethernet Remember: data traffic is bursty Busy! Zzzz.. Ho hum CSE 461 University of Washington 47

48 ALOHA Network Seminal computer network connecting the Hawaiian islands in the late 1960s When should nodes send? A new protocol was devised by Norm Abramson Hawaii CSE 461 University of Washington 48

49 ALOHA Protocol Simple idea: Node just sends when it has traffic. If there was a collision (no ACK received) then wait a random time and resend That s it! CSE 461 University of Washington 49

50 ALOHA Protocol (2) Some frames will be lost, but many may get through Good idea? CSE 461 University of Washington 50

51 ALOHA Protocol (3) Simple, decentralized protocol that works well under low load! Not efficient under high load Analysis shows at most 18% efficiency Improvement: divide time into slots and efficiency goes up to 36% We ll look at other improvements CSE 461 University of Washington 51

52 Classic Ethernet ALOHA inspired Bob Metcalfe to invent Ethernet for LANs in 1973 Nodes share 10 Mbps coaxial cable Hugely popular in 1980s, 1990s : 2009 IEEE CSE 461 University of Washington 52

53 CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) Improve ALOHA by listening for activity before we send (Doh!) Can do easily with wires, not wireless So does this eliminate collisions? Why or why not? CSE 461 University of Washington 53

54 CSMA (2) Still possible to listen and hear nothing when another node is sending because of delay CSE 461 University of Washington 54

55 CSMA (3) CSMA is a good defense against collisions only when BD is small X CSE 461 University of Washington 55

56 CSMA/CD (with Collision Detection) Can reduce the cost of collisions by detecting them and aborting (Jam) the rest of the frame time Again, we can do this with wires Jam! X X X X X X X X Jam! CSE 461 University of Washington 56

57 CSMA/CD Complications Everyone who collides needs to know it happened Time window in which a node may hear of a collision is 2D seconds X CSE 461 University of Washington 57

58 CSMA/CD Complications (2) Impose a minimum frame length of 2D seconds So node can t finish before collision Ethernet minimum frame is 64 bytes X CSE 461 University of Washington 58

59 CSMA Persistence What should a node do if another node is sending? What now? Idea: Wait until it is done, and send CSE 461 University of Washington 59

60 CSMA Persistence (2) Problem is that multiple waiting nodes will queue up then collide More load, more of a problem Now! Uh oh Now! CSE 461 University of Washington 60

61 CSMA Persistence (3) Intuition for a better solution If there are N queued senders, we want each to send next with probability 1/N Send p=½ Whew Send p=½ CSE 461 University of Washington 61

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