Sieťová vrstva. sieťová vrstva Internetu (IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP, BOOTP, smerovanie prepojovanie sietí v sieťovej vrstve riadenie preťaženia QoS

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1 Sieťová vrstva sieťová vrstva Internetu (IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP, BOOTP, DHCP, ) smerovanie prepojovanie sietí v sieťovej vrstve riadenie preťaženia QoS

2 Sieťová vrstva linková vrstva prenos rámcov medzi 2 bodmi (z jedného konca média na druhý) z hľadiska spoľahlivosti (chybovosť, tok dát) sieťová vrstva end-to-end prenos (celá cesta od zdroja do cieľa, včítane všetkých smerovačov) z hľadiska SMEROVANIA transportná vrstva end-to-end prenos PDU (medzi 2 koncovými zariadeniami) z hľadiska spoľahlivosti (chybovosť, tok dát)

3 Smerujeme k IP... (ako časti TCP/IP)

4 Najpoužívanejšie protokoly vyšších vrstiev počítačových sietí vrstva TCP/IP Novell NetWare 7 6 Telnet, FTP, HTTP, RTP/RTCP, SMTP, SNMP NCP, SAP Microsoft Network SMB, RCP 5 NetBios NetBios NetBios 4 TCP, UDP SPX NetBEUI 3 IP, RIP, ICMP, ARP IPX, RIP

5 Hlavné protokoly sieťovej architektúry TCP/IP

6 Prepájanie paketov Store-and-Forward

7 Internetovská komunita vs. telefónny svet

8 Siete bez a so spojovou orientáciou Siete bez spojovej orientácie (connectionless) pakety vstupujú do siete nezávisle a sú aj nezávisle smerované bez výstavby spojenia paket sa nazýva DATAGRAM Siete so spojovou orientáciou (connection-oriented) výstavba spojenia - SIGNALIZÁCIA spojenie sa nazýva VIRTUÁLNY OKRUH (virtual circuit)

9 Služba bez spojovej orientácie (Connectionless Service)

10 Smerovacia tabuľka a smerovací algoritmus smerovacia tabuľka (routing table) návod, kam poslať paket pre každý možný cieľ smerovací algoritmus (routing algorithm) algoritmus, ktorý spravuje smerovacie tabuľky a robí rozhodnutia o smerovaní

11 Služba so spojovou orientáciou (Connection-Oriented Service)

12 Porovnanie sietí s datagramami a s virtuálnymi okruhmi 5-4

13 Protokol IP (Internet Protocol)

14 Internet súbor podsietí (autonómnych systémov) IP best effort spôsob prenosu datagramov zo zdroja do cieľa cez súbor podsietí

15 Verzie IP 1,2,3 v dobe vývoja Internetových protokolov IPv4 (RFC 791) momentálne štandard 5 experimentálny protokol Stream Transport (ST), prenos dát v reálnom čase, verzia sa neujala IPv6 nová vylepšená verzia 7 - pokus o vytvorenie novej generácie, rok 1989, TP/IX (RFC 1475), úprava IP, TCP, UDP 8 - nie veľmi prijateľný návrh na nástupcu IPv4

16 Hlavičky IPv4 a IPv6

17 Hlavička IPv4

18 Hlavička IPv4 Version (4 bits): indicates version number, the value is 4 IHL Internet Header Length (4) bits: length of header in 32-bit words; the minimum value is 5, for a minimum header length of 20 bytes (max is 15 -> 60 bytes) Type of Service (8 bits): provides guidance to end-system IP modules and to routers along the datagram s path (examples of TOS: minimize delay, maximize throughput, maximize reliability, minimize monetary cost, normal service various combinations of speed and reliability are possible) Total Length (16 bits): total datagram length, in bytes (max 65536; for gigabit networks longer datagrams are needed) Identifier (16 bits): a sequence number, that, together with the source address, destination address, and user protocol, is intended to identify a datagram uniquely (podpora fragmentácie hodnota sa zvyšuje o 1 pre každý ďalší datagram)

19 Hlavička IPv4 Flags (3 bits):only 2 bits are defined the More Fragments (MF) bit indicates whether this is the last fragment in the original datagram (all fragments except the last one have this bit set) the Don t Fragment (DF) bit when it is set, it prohibits fragmentation Fragment Offset (13 bits): indicates where in the original datagram this fragment belongs, measured in 64-bit units (this implies that fragments other than the last fragment must contain a data field that is multiple of 64 bits in length) Time to Live (8 bits): specifies how long (in seconds max 255 s) a datagram is allowed to remain in the internet; every router, that processes a datagram must decrease the TTL by at least one in practice TTL is similar to a hop count (hop = the passage of a packet through one router), when it hits zero, the packet is discarded and a warning packet is sent to the source (this prevents datagrams for wandering around forever) chybové hlásenie ICMP Time Exceeded

20 Hlavička IPv4 Protocol (8 bits): indicates the next higher-level protocol, which is to receive the data field at the destination (TCP, UDP, ICMP, IGMP,...) Header checksum (16 bits): an error-detecting code applied to the header only (because some header fields may change during transmit (e.g. TTL or segmentationrelated fields), this is reverified and recomputed at each router Source Address (32 bits): coded to allow a variable allocation of bits to specify the network and the end system attached to the specified network (7 and 24 bits, 14 and 16 bits, or 21 and 8 bits) Destination Address (32 bits): same characteristics as source address Options (variable): encodes the options requested by the sending user Padding (variable): used to ensure that the datagram header is a multiple of 32 bits in length Data (variable): the data field must be an integer multiple of 8 bits in length; the maximum length of the datagram (data field + header) is bytes

21 Hlavička IPv4 - Options Security Option Strict source routing Loose source routing Record route Timestamp Description Specifies how secret the datagram is (ignored in practice) Gives the complete path to be followed (used by system managers for timing or sending emergency packets when the routing tables are corrupted) Gives a list of routers not to be missed (used to dictate passing through or avoiding certain countries or regions) Makes each router append its IP address (allow to track down bugs in the routing algorithms) Makes each router append its address and timestamp (also for debugging)

22 Adresovanie v IP

23 IP adresy Protokol IPv4 - hlavička datagramu

24 IP adresy: Classfull addressing formát (číslo siete + číslo uzla) manažment IP adries: ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), delegovanie regionálnym autoritám, tie delegujú ISP, dekadický zápis (dotted decimal notation) A: 126 (2 7-2) sietí so 16 milión (~2 24 ) uzlami B :16382 (2 14-2) sietí s (2 16-2) uzlami C: 2 milióny (~2 21 ) sietí s 254 (2 8-2) uzlami

25 Špeciálne IP adresy

26 IP adresa <-> uzol IP adresa sa nevzťahuje k počítaču, ale k sieťovému rozhraniu (ak je počítač na 2 sieťach, musí mať 2 adresy)

27 Podsiete (subnets) Univerzitná sieť s katedrovými sieťami LAN využitie podsietí namiesto jednej adresy B so 14 bitmi pre sieť a 16 bitmi pre uzly napr. pre 35 oddelení 6 bitov pre podsieť a 10 bitov pre uzly (62 Ethernetov s 1022 počítačmi), smeruje to lokálny smerovač

28 Podsiete - sieťová maska (subnet mask, netmask) Sieť triedy B rozdelená na 62 (2 6-2) podsietí sieťová maska: sieť + podsieť a uzol bity pre sieť reprezentované 1, pre uzol 0 maska: (252: ) iný zápis: /22 (počet bitov pre sieť + podsieť) podsiete ZVONKA nevidno!

29 Podsiete - sieťová maska (subnet mask, netmask) netmask: integrálna časť adresy uzla bity pre sieť reprezentované 1, pre uzol 0 maska: A : B C

30 Podsiete - sieťová maska (subnet mask, netmask) adresa C mám jednu LAN s IP adresami xx ak je sieťová maska , tak mám jednu sieť s max 254 uzlami: 1. uzol uzol posledný uzol broadcast chceme rozdelenie tejto LAN na viac menších zvonku stále ako jediná LAN

31 Netmask ( ) rozdelí túto LAN ( xx) na 4 podsiete - 4 x max 62 uzlov 1. podsieť: uzol uzol : uzol broadcast 2. podsieť: uzol uzol : uzol broadcast 3. podsieť: uzol uzol : uzol broadcast 4. podsieť: uzol uzol : uzol broadcast

32 Podsiete - sieťová maska (subnet mask, netmask) účel masky: výpočet sieťových adries AND bit po bite medzi IP adresou uzla a maskou Do akej podsiete patrí uzol ? IP adr.: maska: AND sieťová adresa je uzol uzol uzol uzol broadcast

33 VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask subnetting: pre 1 podsieť 1 sieť. maska (všetky podsiete majú rovnaký počet adries) VLSM (RFC 1812) možnosť používať v rámci jednej siete niekoľko sieťových masiek rôznej dĺžky podľa potreby (delenie 32 bitov medzi podsiete a stanice môže byť pre každý fyzický segment rôzne) VLSM umožňuje podsieťovať podsiete umožňuje vychádzať z adresy podsiete a túto ďalej deliť podľa rovnakých pravidiel

34 VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask napr. pod-podsieťovanie 6 bitmi -> ďalších 62 podsieťových adries v rámci jednej podsiete adresa siete /16 adresa podsiete /20 (4 bity tretieho oktetu pre podsieťovanie) adresa pre VLSM /26 (ďalších 6 bitov tretieho/štvrtého oktetu pre podsieťovanie) sieť podsieť VLSM podsieť uzly

35 VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask napr. pod-podsieťovanie 6 bitmi -> ďalších 62 podsieťových adries v rámci jednej podsiete adresa siete /16 adresa podsiete /20 (4 bity tretieho oktetu pre podsieťovanie) adresa pre VLSM /26 (ďalších 6 bitov tretieho/štvrtého oktetu pre podsieťovanie) podsiete 1.oktet 2.oktet 3.oktet podsieť 3./4. oktet podsieť VLSM stanica adresa podsiete podľa VLSM 1.podsieť podsieť podsieť podsieť podsieť

36 VLSM Variable Length Subnet Mask sieť podsieť VLSM podsieť uzly namiesto veľkého počtu staníc, ktoré sa mohli adresovať na podsieti /20 (2^12-2=4094) sa ďalším podsieťovaním ( /26) získalo celkom 2^6-2=62 podsietí a v každej z nich adresy pre 62 staníc (2^6-2)

37 CIDR Classless InterDomain Routing Classless IPv4 addressing jedno z riešení nedostatku IP adries RFC 1519 prideľovanie zostávajúcich adries v blokoch premenlivej dĺžky bez ohľadu na triedy (A,B, C) nazýva sa aj nadsieťovanie (supernetting)

38 CIDR Classless InterDomain Routing napr. ak organizácia potrebuje 2000 adries, dostane blok 2048 adries každej položke smerovacej tabuľky sa priradí 32-bitová maska jednotná smerovacia tabuľka pre všetky siete: pole trojíc (IP adresa, sieťová maska, výstupná linka) AND každej položky smerovacej tabuľky s 32-bitovou maskou, až potom porovnanie s adresami v smerovacej tabuľke ak je zhoda s 2 položkami, akceptuje sa maska s viacerými 1 ( longest prefix match )

39 Triedne (classfull) a beztriedne (classless, CIDR) adresovanie smerovanie na základe tried adries smerovanie na základe prefixu adresy bez ohľadu na triedu adries (CIDR, Classless InterDomain Routing, alebo prefix routing)

40 Triedne (classfull) a beztriedne (classless, CIDR) adresovanie Formát IP adries s triedami SIEŤ PODSIEŤ UZOL Formát IP adries bez tried PREFIX SIETE UZOL

41 Classless Addressing napr. voľné adresy počnúc potreby univerzít: Cambridge: 2048 adries Oxford: 4096 adries Edinburgh: 1024 adries

42 Privátne IP adresy tri intervaly IP adries: / = adries / = adries / = adries interné využitie je ľubovoľné nesmú sa objaviť na internete NAT (Network Address Translation): RFC 3022

43 NAT Network Address Translation

44 Porty až transportná vrstva (UDP, TCP) napr. hlavička UDP:

45 NAT Network Address Translation paket von: 10.x.y.z sa nahradí reálnou IP adresou TCP source port sa v prevodnej tabuľke NAT boxu transformuje na index (16 bitov) prevodnej tabuľky so položkami položka obsahuje pôvodnú IP adresu a pôvodný source port prepočítajú sa kontrolné súčty TCP aj IP hlavičky a vložia sa do paketu paket dnu: TCP source port z TCP hlavičky (16 bitový index) je vstupom do prevodnej tabuľky NAT boxu výstupom je interná IP adresa + originálny TCP source port, vložia sa do paketu prepočítajú sa kontrolné súčty TCP aj IP hlavičky a vložia sa do paketu port (16 b integer), 2^16=65536, prvých 4096 portov je na špeciálne účely -> uzlov na jednu IP adresu

46 NAT Network Address Translation problémy s NAT (RFC 2993): porušuje architektúru IP (IP adresa jednoznačne určuje jediný uzol vo svete) mení Internet na spojovo orientovanú sieť (mapovanie spojení) porušuje základné pravidlo protokolových vrstiev (vrstva k sa nemá starať o to, čo vrstva k+1 vkladá do inf. poľa) Internet nevyužíva iba protokoly TCP a UDP niektoré aplikácie vkladajú IP adresu do posielaných dát (FTP, H.323,...) NAT krátkodobo rieši nedostatok IP adries ale odkladá prechod k IPv6

47 Riadiace protokoly sieťovej vrstvy (Internet Control Protocols)

48 ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol činnosť siete monitorujú smerovače ICMP - hlásenie nečakaných udalostí definované správy ICMP - enkapsulácia do IP paketov zoznam správ:

49 ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol Hlavné správy ICMP:

50 ICMP - Internet Control Message Protocol ICMP aj zisťovanie doplnkových informácií, overenie komunikácie ping (packet internet groper) zistenie dosiahnuteľnosti uzla grope-hmatať, tápať, hľadať cestu v tme ICMP správy Echo request s IP adresou cieľa Echo reply traceroute postupné inkrementovanie TTL dekrementovanie TTL pre každý hop ak TTL=1, paket sa zahodí a pošle sa chybové hlásenie ICMP time exceeded

51 ARP Address Resolution Protocol mapovanie IP adries na linkové adresy (napr. Ethernet MAC adresy) konfiguračné súbory ARP (RFC 826) broadcast paket po Ethernete: Kto vlastní IP adresu x.y.z.q? - čiže je to otázka na MAC adresu komunikácia v rámci jednej podsiete komunikácia medzi podsieťami

52 ARP Address Resolution Protocol komunikácia v rámci jednej podsiete: (napr. 3 prepojené siete /24: 2xEthernet a kruh FDDI) E1: ? E2: pár (IP, Ethernet)

53 ARP Address Resolution Protocol komunikácia medzi podsieťami: proxy ARP CS router E3 odpovedá na ARP požiadavky pre sieť ; E1 a E2 priamo majú v cache pár ( x,E3) uzly na CS vedia, že cieľ je na vzdialenej podsieti, default posielajú prevádzku na určený uzol (napr. E3)

54 Typicky má uzol v ARP cache 10 až 100 fyzických adries po dobu 2 hodín, generuje cca 50 požiadaviek ARP za 2 hodiny (0,007 za sekundu), pri počte 2000 IP uzlov je 14 požiadaviek ARP vyslaných na všeobecnú adresu za sekundu

55 RARP, BOOTP Riešenie opačnej otázky: Aká IP adresa zodpovedá danej Ethernetovej adrese? - čiže je to otázka na IP adresu napr. bootovanie bezdiskovej pracovnej stanice (dnes sa ale častejšie využíva DHCP) RARP (Reverse ARP) RFC 903 RARP server odpovedá na lokálny broadcast (RARP požiadavka) RARP používa adresu , nie je smerovaná smerovačmi jeden RARP server pre každú podsieť BOOTP (Bootstrap Protocol) RFC 951, 1048, 1084 využíva UDP správy smerované smerovačmi aj prídavné infomácie pre bezdiskovú pracovnú stanicu (IP adresa servera s jej memory imagom, IP adresa default smerovača, router, subnet maska) nevýhoda manuálna konfigurácia (robí administrátor) tabuliek mapovania IP adresa <-> Ethernet adresa radšej DHCP

56 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol RFC 2131, 2132 DHCP server spravuje IP adresy, info o ďalších konfiguračných parametroch klienta default gateway, domain name, DNS servery,... manuálne aj automatické pridelenie IP adries, doby leasingu adries, sieťová maska, default gateway,...

57 DHCP - Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol napr. DHCP server na požiadavku uzla priraďuje IP adresu DHCP server sa nedosiahne broadcastom -> DHCP relay agent pre každú LAN ako dlho má byť IP adresa pridelená? leasing (pred ukončením nájmu adresy žiadosť o obnovenie)

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