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1 CS1Bh Solution Sheet 4 Software Engineering in Java This is a solution set for CS1Bh Question Sheet 4. You should only consult these solutions after attempting the exercises. Notice that the solutions are samples alternative answers may be possible. 1. State whether each of these statements is true or false. Give a reason for your answer. a) A superclass typically represents a larger number of objects than its subclass represents. True. Every object that extends the subclass also extends the superclass, but the superclasses may have many unrelated subclasses. b) A subclass typically encapsulates less functionality than does its superclass. False. A subclass inherits all the functionality of its superclass. c) An object of a given subclass also belongs to the subclass s superclass. True. An object belongs to its class, that class s superclass, that superclass s superclass... The same also goes for interfaces. If a class implements an interface it must also implement every interface above it in the class hierarchy. d) Every class has a superclass. Almost true. Every class extends java.lang.object. Hence every class has at least this as a superclass. The only exception being Object itself. 2. Java provides interfaces and abstract classes as two ways of specifying behaviour of methods in classes without providing an implementation. What are the differences between the two? When would you prefer to use one or the other? There are two principal differences between interfaces and abstract classes. Firstly, interfaces are forbidden to provide any implementation of the methods they declare, whereas an abstract class can provide as much implementation as it wants. Furthermore interfaces may not declare constructors at all, even without a body. 1

2 The second difference is that classes can extend at most one class 1, whereas they can implement arbitrarily many interfaces. Conceptually interfaces correspond to abilities of the class (X implements Y meaning X can do Y ) whereas subclassing states what kind of thing a class is (X extends Y meaning X is a Y ). Prefer to use an abstract class to: provide some of the implementation. specify constructors of a certain form. enforce the is a relationship. Prefer an interface to: inherit functionality from another class maximise the number of classes which can conform to this specification 3. Programming exercises in CS1 use a relatively small number of classes, which have been compiled in a single directory. In the real world, however, Java programs may have hundreds of classes and interface definitions for an extreme example think how many classes are in the standard API. To organise classes in a useful fashion we use packages. A package is just a collection of classes which are in some way related 2. However the use of packages makes compiling and running Java programs a bit more complicated. Consider these two files, packtest1.java and packtest2.java: package A; // this tells the compiler which package // the classes defined in this file belong to class Test { public static void main (String[] args) { System.out.println("package A"); package B; class Test { public static void main (String[] args) { System.out.println("package B"); Try compiling and running them. Where are the class files put? What happens when you try to run them? Look at the manpages for javac and java and work out what you must do to compile and run the programs correctly. If we simply use the command 1 in fact all classes extend exactly one class, since if the extends keyword is not used, the class implicitly extends java.lang.object. 2 Actually packages are more than just an organisational convenience; being a member of a package gives a class special privileges with respect to other classes in the same package. 2

3 javac packtest1.java packtest2.java then only one class file is produced, in the current directory, called Test.class. If we run it then we get a fatal exception: [cookies]rwd: java Test Exception in thread "main" java.lang.noclassdeffounderror: test (wrong name: B/te The soluion is to compile the classes using the -d switch of javac. For example mkdir /myclasses javac -d /myclasses/ packtest1.java packtest2.java (where we have to create the directory first with mkdir if it doesn t already exist). Now the class files are in the directories /myclasses/a and /myclasses/b. But now the interpreter doesn t know where to find the class files. We have to invoke it with (eg) java -cp /myclasses/ A.Test or else set the CLASSPATH variable to include /myclasses/. Of course if we compiled the files with -d. then there is no need to specify the classpath as it will be the current directory. Now consider another file packtest3.java: package A; class Subtest { public static void main (String[] args) { Test t = new Test(); System.out.println("subtest OK"); Do you encounter any problems compiling it? Why? Again refer to the man page to resolve the problem. The most likely compilation problem is that javac needs to know where the class A.Test is. This can be done by setting the classpath either as an environment variable, or as a command line argument. javac -classpath /myclasses -d /myclasses packtest3.java Once you have sucessfully compiled it modify the file to use the defintion of test in packtest2.java. There are several ways to do this. How many can you think of? (You should get at least two.) Do you also need to modify packtest2.java? What changes are needed? To use the B.Test class either: a) use the full class name at line 5 e.g. B.Test t =... b) import the class: import B.Test; at the top of the file. 3

4 c) import the whole package: import B.*; d) move subtest to the other package by modifying its package statement. (Though in a real program you wouldn t usually want to do this.) These changes are not enough on their own; B.Test is not a public class. As well as changing its declaration it needs to be put in a file called Test.java. 4. Classes use the visibility modifiers public, private and protected to control which of their elements are available to other classes. What are the meanings of these modifiers? If a class does not sport any visibility modifier are there any restrictions on where it may be accessed from? What are they? Private classes, fields and methods are accessible only with in the class they are declared in. In particular they are not available to subclasses of the declaraing class. The default visibility (sometimes called package visibility) allows a class, field or method to be accessed anywhere within the same package as the declaring class. Protected classes, fields and methods are accessible within classes in the package of the declaring class and its subclasses, but not elsewhere. Public classes, fields and methods are accessible by any class in any package. 5. Consider this implementation of an Integer array. public class MyArray { public int size; private Integer[] array; public MyArray (int size) { this.size = size; array = new Integer[this.size]; public void put (Integer n, int pos) { if(pos >= 0 && pos < size) { array[pos]=n; public Integer get (int pos) { return array[pos]; 4

5 The file will compile, and in most circumstances it will function without problem. However it contains several flaws from an engineering point of view. How many can you identify? Note: this question has been modified since the sheet was originally issued. In particular the put method has been altered and the third flaw idenitified in these solution applies only to this altered version. a) The most serious error is making the size field public. This permits the user to write code like: MyArray M = new MyArray(5); M.size = 10; M.put(new Integer(101), 9); which will cause the program to try and assign to a non-existent array slot, circumventing the bounds checking present in the put method. To avoid this the size field should be private, with a public accessor method getsize() which allows size to be read, but not altered. b) The get method does not provide any bounds checking, so it is possible to attempt to read from a non-existent array slot. In older languages such as C this is entirely possible, so it would be essential to trap an out-of-bounds index in get. However Java does perform array bounds checking so this program will throw an exception if we try to read outside the array, giving us several choices. We could leave the code unaltered and rely on the caller to handle any resulting exceptions; we could catch the exception ourselves and rethrow it as a different kind of exception (the point of rethrowing is to give a more specific information to the caller - they shouldn t have to know the internals of our class in order to understand its error messages); or we can check the index in get and throw an Exception if the bounds are exceeded. This last option is probably the best. c) The put method performs bounds checking but if the index is out of bounds it silently fails. There are two alternative solutions: either throw an exception if put fails, or modify the method so that it returns a boolean indicting success or failure. This example is slightly artifical as Java provides safety checking for arrays as standard, but the same issues apply to more complicated classes: keep the class s internal state consistent, detect erronous usage and report failure effectively. 6. There are situations where we design classes which we would like to ensure are instantiated only once that is there is only ever one object of the class at any given time. Such a class is called a Singleton. a) Making use of the access modifiers, design a class which can be instantiated only once. (Hint: How will other programs gain access to the single instance of your class?) // has to be final otherwise subclasses could // override its Singleton-ness public final class Singleton { // the unique instance 5

6 private static Singleton singleton; // constructor is private so that it can only be seen // by this class private Singleton() { System.err.println("Singleton created!"); // create instance and ensure there is only one // static so not attached to any instance public static Singleton getinstance() { if(singleton == null) singleton = new Singleton(); return singleton; b) Can you think of any circumstances where you would want to use a Singleton class? Can you find any examples in the Java API? A non-trivial example is that of a resource pool. The ResourcePool object is responsible for creating and distributing objects which are expensive to create, such as database connections. The purpose of such a class would be defeated if an other class could just create new instance of it. Within the API java.lang.runtime is a Singleton. 7. List five common situations where an exception would be thrown. List the benefits of exceptions compared to traditional error handling. Can you think of a situation where traditional error handling would be problematic? Trying to derefence a null variable, array subscript out of bounds, file could not be opened, memory exhaustion, invalid method arguments. Among others: generally clearer better structured code; can handle errors non-locally; can group different types of error using subclasses of Exception; declaring which exceptions a method may throw is a form of documentation enforced by the compiler. An important example is within a constructor, where there is no return value. 8. Suppose that a program throws an exception and the appropriate exception handler begins executing. Suppose now that the exception handler itself throws an the same exception again. Does this create an infinite recursion? Explain your answer. No recusion will result since the exception handler is outside its own try block. Therefore the exception will be propagated up the call stack to be handled elsewhere. This can only happen finitely many times before the top of the call stack is reached and the Virtual Machine aborts. 6

7 9. For this question you should review material on Streams from CS1Ah Lecture Note 29. Consider the class shown below. import java.io.*; public class StringReader { public String[] strings; public StringReader(String filename, int size) { try { strings = new String[size]; FileInputStream file = new FileInputStream(filename); ObjectInputStream in = new ObjectInputStream(file); for(int i = 0 ; true ; i++) { Object o = in.readobject(); strings[i] = (String)o; catch(exception e) { // do nothing Can you identify the points in the file where an exception might be thrown? What type of Exeception could be thrown at each of those points? If an exception occured it would be caught at line 16. Do you think this a good idea? How would you improve it? Which of the possible exceptions do you think this class should attempt to deal with, and which should be passed up to the class s user? Line 9: FileNotFoundException. Line 9: SecurityException. Line 10: StreamCorruptedException. Line 10: IOException. Line 12: ClassNotFoundException Line 12: InvalidClassException Line 12: StreamCorruptedException Line 12: OptionalDataException Line 12: IOException Line 12: EOFException Line 13: ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException Line 13: ClassCastException 7

8 From the above list we can see that the program might fail in a variety of ways, none of which we should blindly ignore. It would be unrealistic to catch all of these exceptions and handle then differently but there are a few we might want special treatment of. In particular, if nothing else goes wrong, one of EOFException and ArrayIndexOutOfBoundsException will always be thrown. We would probably want to handle these internally. Ross Duncan (with minor changes by Murray Cole), April 1st,

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