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1 Contents Preface Acknowledgements Part I: Preliminaries Basics of Software Testing Humans, errors, and testing Errors, faults, and failures Test automation Developer and tester as two roles Software quality Quality attributes Reliability Requirements, behavior, and correctness Input domain and program correctness Valid and invalid inputs Correctness versus reliability Correctness Reliability Program use and the operational profile Testing and debugging Preparing a test plan Constructing test data Executing the program Specifying program behavior Assessing the correctness of program behavior Construction of oracles Test metrics Organizational metrics Project metrics Process metrics

2 Product metrics: generic Product metrics: OO software Progress monitoring and trends Static and dynamic metrics Testability Software and hardware testing Testing and verification Defect management Execution History Test generation strategies Static testing Walkthroughs Inspections Use of static code analysis tools in static testing Software Complexity and static testing Model-based testing and model checking Control Flow Graph Basic block Flow graph: definition and pictorial representation Path Dominators and post-dominators Program Dependence Graph Data dependence Control dependence Strings, languages, and regular expressions Types of testing Classifier: C1: Source of test generation Classifier: C2: Life cycle phase Classifier: C3: Goal directed testing Classifier: C4: Artifact under test Classifier: C5: Test process models The saturation effect Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises Part II: Test Generation 97

3 6 2. Test Generation: From Requirements Introduction The test selection problem Equivalence partitioning Faults targeted Relations and equivalence partitioning Equivalence classes for variables Uni-dimensional versus multidimensional partitioning A systematic procedure for equivalence partitioning Test selection based on equivalence classes GUI design and equivalence classes Boundary value analysis Category-partition method Cause-effect graphing Notation used in Cause-effect graphing Creating cause-effect graphs Decision table from cause-effect graph Heuristics to avoid combinatorial explosion Test generation from a decision table Test generation from predicates Predicates and Boolean expressions Fault model for predicate testing Predicate constraints Predicate testing criteria Generating BOR, BRO, and BRE adequate tests Cause effect graphs and predicate testing Fault propagation Predicate testing in practice Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises Test Generation: FSM Models Software design and testing Finite state machines Excitation using an input sequence Tabular representation Properties of FSM Conformance testing Reset inputs The testing problem

4 A fault model Mutants of FSMs Fault coverage Characterization set Construction of the k-equivalence partitions Deriving the characterization set Identification sets The W-method Assumptions Maximum number of states Computation of the transition cover set Constructing Z Deriving a test set Testing using the W-method The error detection process The partial W-method Testing using the Wp-method for m = n Testing using the Wp-method for m > n The UIO-sequence method Assumptions UIO sequences Core and non-core behavior Generation of UIO sequences Distinguishing signatures Test generation Test optimization Fault detection Automata theoretic versus control-flow based techniques n-switch-cover Comparing automata theoretic methods Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises Test Generation: Statecharts Statecharts States Transitions Pseudo states Events Actions

5 Statechart and behavior Compound transitions Scope of states and transitions Test generation from Statecharts Statecharts as I/O transformers Distinguishing pairs of states Statecharts with no compound states Test harness and internal events Handling partial labels Discarding and pruning tests Handling connectors Handling guards Constructing P and W Generation of variable-value pairs Statecharts with OR states Interlevel transitions History connectors Statecharts with AND states Handling forks and merges Fault detection in statecharts and the need for W-sets Exploiting hierarchy in test generation Test assessment and enhancement Statechart-based assessment IUT-based assessment Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises Test Generation: Timed I/O Automata Introduction Overview of the test methodology Timed automata Informal introduction Interpretation of clock guards Timed trace Clocks and real-time systems Time assignments Equivalence of time assignments Timed automata and Timed Input/Output Automata Clock regions Successor regions

6 Region graphs Fault model Transfer and action faults Clock reset faults Faults in the specification of timing constraints Tests and delays Clock granularity Observing the IUT during test Test generation using TIOA models Grid automata NTFSMs and generation from grid automata Trace equivalence Delay and input identified states Test Generation using the timed Wp method Assumptions that guarantee fault detection Mapping faults to NTFSM Fault detection Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises Test Generation: Combinatorial Designs Combinatorial designs Test configuration and test set Modeling the input and configuration spaces A combinatorial test design process Fault model Latin Squares Mutually orthogonal Latin squares Pairwise design: binary factors Pairwise design: multi-valued factors Orthogonal arrays Covering and mixed-level covering arrays Arrays of strength > Generating covering arrays Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises

7 10 7. Test Generation: Regression What is regression testing? Regression test process Test revalidation, selection, minimization, and prioritization Test setup Test sequencing Test execution Output comparison Regression test selection: the problem Selecting regression tests Test all Random selection Selecting modification traversing tests Test minimization Test prioritization Test selection using execution trace Obtaining the execution trace Selecting regression tests Handling function calls Handling changes in declarations Test selection using dynamic slicing Dynamic slicing Computation of dynamic slices Selecting tests Potential dependence Computing the relevant slice Addition and deletion of statements Identifying variables for slicing Reduced dynamic dependence graph Scalability of test selection algorithms Test minimization The set cover problem A procedure for test minimization Test prioritization Tools for regression testing Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises

8 11 8. Test Generation: Formal Specifications Introduction The Z notation in brief A Z specification Sets Types Expressions and types Predicates Sequence Schema Combining schemas Operations and features Test generation using the Test Template framework Valid input domain Test templates Template division strategies Domain propagation Number of occurrences Specification mutation Test template instantiation Range of operations and the oracle Robustness testing using formal specifications Digression from formal specifications Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises Part III: Test Adequacy Assessment and Enhancement Test Adequacy: Control Flow and Data Flow Test adequacy: basics What is test adequacy? Measurement of test adequacy Test enhancement using measurements of adequacy Infeasibility and test adequacy Error detection and test enhancement Single and multiple executions Adequacy criteria based on control flow Statement and block coverage Conditions and decisions Decision coverage

9 Condition coverage Condition/decision coverage Multiple condition coverage Linear code sequence and jump (LCSAJ) coverage Modified condition/decision coverage MC/DC adequate tests for compound conditions Definition of MC/DC coverage Minimal MC/DC tests Error detection and MC/DC adequacy Short-circuit evaluation and infeasibility Tracing test cases to requirements Data flow concepts Definitions and uses C-use and p-use Global and local definitions and uses Data-flow graph Def-clear paths Def-use pairs Def-use chains A little optimization Data contexts and ordered data contexts Adequacy criteria based on data flow c-use coverage p-use coverage all-uses coverage k-dr chain coverage Using the k-dr chain coverage Infeasible c- and p-uses Context coverage Control Flow versus Data Flow The subsumes Relation Structural and functional testing Scalability of coverage measurement Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises Test adequacy: Program Mutation Introduction Mutation and mutants First-order and higher-order mutants

10 Syntax and semantics of mutants Strong and weak mutations Why mutate? Test assessment using mutation A procedure for test adequacy assessment Alternate procedures for test adequacy assessment Distinguished versus killed mutants Conditions for distinguishing a mutant Mutation operators Operator types Language dependence of mutation operators Design of mutation operators Goodness criteria for mutation operators Guidelines Founding principles of mutation testing The competent programmer hypothesis The coupling effect Equivalent mutants Fault detection using mutation Types of mutants Mutation operators for C What is not mutated? Linearization Execution Sequence Effect of an execution sequence Global and local identifier Sets Global and local reference sets Mutating program constants Mutating operators Mutating statements Mutating program variables Mutation operators for Java Traditional mutation operators Inheritence Polymrophism and dynamic binding Method overloading Java specific mutation operators Mutation operators for Fortran 77, C, and Java: a comparison Tools for mutation testing Mutation testing within budget Prioritizing functions to be mutated

11 Selecting a subset of mutation operators Summary Bibliographic Notes Exercises Bibliography Subject Index Name Index

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