DIGITAL SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS (ECE421) DIGITAL ELECTRONICS FUNDAMENTAL (ECE422)
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1 COURSE / CODE DIGITAL SYSTEM FUNDAMENTALS (ECE421) DIGITAL ELECTRONICS FUNDAMENTAL (ECE422) Memory In computing, memory refers to the computer hardware devices used to store information for immediate use in a computer; it is synonymous with the term "primary storage". Computer memory operates at a high speed, for example random-access memory (RAM), as a distinction from storage that provides slow-to-access program and data storage but offers higher capacities. If needed, contents of the computer memory can be transferred to secondary storage, through a memory management technique called "virtual memory". An archaic synonym for memory is store. The term "memory", meaning "primary storage" or "main memory", is often associated with addressable semiconductor memory, i.e. integrated circuits consisting of silicon-based transistors, used for example as primary storage but also other purposes in computers and other digital electronic devices. There are two main kinds of semiconductor memory, volatile and non-volatile. Examples of nonvolatile memory are flash memory (used as secondary memory) and ROM, PROM, EPROM and EEPROM memory (used for storing firmware such as BIOS). Examples of volatile memory are primary storage, which is typically dynamic random-access memory (DRAM), and fast CPU cache memory, which is typically static random-access memory (SRAM) that is fast but energy-consuming, offering lower memory areal density than DRAM. Most semiconductor memory is organized into memory cells or bi-stable flip-flops, each storing one bit (0 or 1). Flash memory organization includes both one bit per memory cell and multiple bits per cell (called MLC, Multiple Level Cell). The memory cells are grouped into words of fixed word length, for example 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 or 128 bit. Each word can be accessed by a binary address of N bit, making it possible to store 2 raised by N words in the memory. This implies that processor registers normally are not considered as memory, since they only store one word and do not include an addressing mechanism. Address bus is a unidirectional bus, and is used to carry address information from CPU to the memory and I/O devices. Data bus is a bidirectional bus, and is used to carry data/instruction between CPU and memory and I/O devices. Control bus are control and timing signals used by the CPU and devices to ensure proper operation of the system. Mohd. Uzir Kamaluddin / Aug 2016 Page 1
2 Typical secondary storage devices are hard disk drives and solid-state drives. Volatile memory is a type of memory that requires the application of electrical power in order to store information. If the electrical power is removed, all information stored in the memory will be lost. Non-Volatile memory on the other hand can store information even without electrical power. Block diagram of Random Access Memory (RAM) This block diagram introduces the main interface to the RAM chip. The chip select input CS will enable or disable the RAM chip. The address input lines will specify the address or location to read from or to write to. The RD/WR selects between reading from or writing to the memory chip. The data in/out lines is where the data is coming in (for case of writing) or going out (for the case of reading). Block diagram of Read Only Memory (ROM) This block diagram introduces the main interface to the ROM chip. The chip select input CS will enable or disable the ROM chip. The address input lines will specify the address or location to read from. Mohd. Uzir Kamaluddin / Aug 2016 Page 2
3 The data out lines is where the data is going out when there is reading operation. Memory IC Mohd. Uzir Kamaluddin / Aug 2016 Page 3
4 Exercise 1 What is the meaning of the following terms related to memory and CPU: a) Memory cell f) Control Bus b) Memory word g) R/W line c) Capacity h) OE line d) Data Bus i) CS line e) Address Bus Exercise 2 If a memory IC is specified as (2K x 8), then determine: a) The number of words that can be stored in this IC b) The number of bits per word c) The capacity of the memory IC Memory Module Memory module are the memory that is available for the microprocessor. It may consist of ROM and RAM. The ROM may contain some programs which will run when the microprocessor is turned on, or some data which needed by the microprocessor. It is essential to be able to design a memory module for a microprocessor so as this will give a greater understanding of the working of the microprocessor later on. The simple block diagram shows a microprocessor is interfaced to eight 1kx8 memory chips, making the microprocessor have access to 8kbytes of memory. The use of decoder to select the appropriate memory chip is common in the design of a memory module. The control lines, such as RD/WR for RAM and OE for ROM are not shown. Example: Draw the memory module of 4kB x 8 using 1kB X 8 memory ICs. Solution: Since the memory module has a total of 4KB of memory, then 4 memory ICs of 1kB each are required. Mohd. Uzir Kamaluddin / Aug 2016 Page 4
5 The decoder needs to select one memory IC at any particular time, since there are 4 memory ICs, then the suitable decoder is 2 to 4 decoder. Exercise 1 If a memory IC is specified as (64K x 8), then: a) How many words can be stored on this IC? b) How many data input and data output lines does it have? c) How many memory cells does it contain? d) Design using this IC, a memory module of size 512Kbyte. Mohd. Uzir Kamaluddin / Aug 2016 Page 5
6 Exercise 2 Design a 32Kbyte memory module that is interfaced to a CPU having 16 address lines and 8 data lines using (16K x 8) RAM ICs. Mohd. Uzir Kamaluddin / Aug 2016 Page 6
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