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1 Information Science 1 -Basic Concepts of Computers: Opera4on, Architecture, Memory- Week 02 College of Information Science and Engineering Ritsumeikan University

2 Today s lecture outline l Recall the previous class l What is a computer l What is the structure of a computer and its basic parts - Main memory and how data is stored in a computer - Central Processing Unit - The Input and Output - Computer bus l Quiz 2

3 Week 01 vocabulary l Moritz Marutschke (CC 308) l Course structure l Information Science l Test, quiz l Academic integrity l Handouts, slides l Self-preparation assignments l Feedback l Solve problems 3

4 What is a computer? l A computer is a digital system that stores, transforms, and communicates data in digital form l In a computer, all data is represented by a fixed number of discrete (non-continuous) symbols, called digits l First modern computer The EDVAC, Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer, was completed at Moore School by Mauchly, Eckert, and Von Neumann in

5 What is data? l Data is the information which a computer processes l Individual data values may represent - numbers, - alphabetic characters, and - any other coded information (music, picture, etc.) l How about instructions of computer programs? Are they data? - yes 5

6 Data representation l In a computer, all data is stored and processed in the binary form, that is, as a series of 0s and 1s e.g l Each binary digit is called a bit binary digit, the smallest unit of information which can be stored in the computer 6

7 Why binary? l Advantages Binary signals are very reliable: easy to detect and correct any errors The basic decision-making processes are binary, e.g. yes/no, true/false, or 1/0 Binary devices are easy to design l Disadvantages We are more familiar with decimal numbers Binary numbers are longer 7

8 Binary data units Bit count l Bits are grouped into larger units known as bytes to hold more meaningful data: 1 Byte = 8 bits l For every byte, we have: Most significant bit, msb Least significant bit, lsb l Another data unit is a computer word that defines the number of bits stored in a single memory cell of a particular computer 8

9 More on data units Bit 1 Byte 8 bits is exactly equal to Kilobyte 2 10 Bytes = 1,024 B 10 3 B Megabyte 2 10 kilobytes 10 6 B Gigabyte 2 10 Megabytes 10 9 B Terabyte 2 10 Gigabytes B is approximately equal to e.g. 256kB of memory have 256*1024=262,144 bytes Remember that the length of a computer word can be different on different computers 9

10 Counting in binary What is the decimal analog of ? *2 7 +0* *2 5 +1* *2 3 +0*2 2 +0*2 1 +1*2 0 = 153 in base 10 (decimal) What is (decimal) 127 in 14-bit memory? * * = 15= +0* * * *2 8 +0*2 7 +1*2 6 +1* *2 4 +1*2 3 +1*2 2 +1* *

11 Writing in binary? l Characters are represented using ASCII or Unicode standards l For example, in ASCII (that stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange), each character is represented with 7 bits: H E L O l HELLO in ASCII is, therefore, stored as

12 Computer structure: Memory l The primary (main, physical) memory of a computer is usually called RAM - RAM stands for Random Access Memory - It stores all the binary data - The computer s Central Processing Unit (CPU) can access RAM data cell s address cells computer words data 12

13 l Cell size = computer word Facts about RAM l If word = 8 bits, then cell size = 1 Byte. Maximum value that can be stored in a byte is = 255, too small l Numbers much greater than 255 have to be stored in computers. For that reason, modern computers have word sizes of 32, 64, or even 128 bits l In RAM, if the computer word is composed of N bits, the maximum address is 2 N -1. The RAM size is, however, 2 N 13

14 More facts about RAM l Random Access Memory is a form of computer data storage. There can also be other forms, such as HDD, ROM, NOR-Flash, etc l RAM physically is a set of circuits allowing the stored data to be accessed in any order (i.e. at random) l In RAM, any piece of data can be returned in a constant time, regardless of its address and whether or not it is related to the previous piece of data l Read/Write capability and high access speed are characteristics of RAM in modern computers l RAM is usually volatile, which means the data is lost when the power is turned off 14

15 Computer structure: CPU l l l A Central Processing Unit (CPU) or processor is an electronic circuit that can execute computer programs Every CPU has two parts: - Control Unit (CU) that controls and coordinates the computer s operations. CU locates the appropriate instructions at each time step, loads the instructions to CPU from RAM, controls their sequencing, and executes them - Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) that performs all arithmetic computations (such as addition, multiplication, etc) and logic operations (such as value comparison, logical addition, etc) The CPU has special memory cells registers to hold data and results of the calculations 15

16 CPU: How it works CPU reads program instructions from RAM and executes one instruction at a time until completion, according to the Machine Cycle algorithm: Instruction Fetch Instruction Decode Operand Fetch Execute Result Store Next Instruction Obtain an instruction from RAM Determine required actions and instruction size Locate and obtain instruction data Compute result Store result in memory for later use Determine the next instruction 16

17 CPU registers and operation Memory Address Register (MAR): holds main memory addresses when fetching instructions or data 17

18 CPU registers (cont-d) Memory Data Register (MDR): stores instruction and data just fetched, and also data to be written to RAM. Sometimes called MB(buffer)R 18

19 Instruction Register (IR): contains the instruction currently being executed CPU registers (cont-d) 19

20 Control Unit (CU): generates signals that cause the execution or the fetch of an instruction CPU operation (cont-d) 20

21 CPU operation (cont-d) Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU): calculations and logical comparisons take place here 21

22 CPU registers (cont-d) General Purpose Registers (GPR): these are special memory cells for temporary storage of data inside CPU 22

23 Program Counter (PC): contains the address of the next instruction to be executed CPU registers (cont-d) 23

24 CPU registers (cont-d) Processor Status Register (PSR): contains information about the current state of the CPU 24

25 The Machine Cycle: Revisited l Defines how instructions are retrieved and executed inside the computer l Sometimes also called the Instruction Cycle, Fetch-Execute Cycle, or Automatic Sequence Control l Major steps are: Fetch the instruction from memory to IR Increment the PC Execute the instruction in IR Repeat the previous steps until termination 25

26 Computer structure: I/O l Input and Output devices (I/O) allow humans to interact with computers l I/O gives computers long-term memory l I/O lets computers control and communicate with other systems l Examples: I/O Device Behavior Partner Keyboard I Human Mouse I Human Sound card I and O Human HDD I and O Computer Printer O Human CD, DVD drive I and O Computer Network card I and O Computer Display usually O Human 26

27 Computer structure: Bus l A computer bus is a collection of wires used to transfer data between the computer s parts l In a computer, there are usually more than just one bus; for example: CPU RAM PCI Bus SCSI Bus USB Bus PCI-E Bus 27

28 Review l What is a computer? a digital system that handles binary data l What are the main parts of a computer? RAM CPU (CU, ALU, and CPU registers) I/O bus l How does a computer operate? according to the Machine Cycle 28

29 Homework l Receive slides for the next lecture and read them before going to the class l Receive self-preparation assignments and study them thoroughly l Learn the vocabulary l Consult, when necessary, the textbook materials 29

30 Next class l Representation of data in memory (1) - Units of computer memory and the binary signal. Decimal, binary, octal, and hexadecimal numerical representation systems 30

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