Designing the User Interface

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1 Designing the User Interface Strategies for Effective Human-Computer Interaction Second Edition Ben Shneiderman The University of Maryland Addison-Wesley Publishing Company Reading, Massachusetts Menlo Park, California New York Don Mills, Ontario Wokingham, England Amsterdam Bonn Sydney Singapore Tokyo Madrid San Juan Milan Paris

2 Contents CHAPTER 1 Human Factors of Interactive Software Introduction System-Engineering Goals Proper functionality Reliability, availability, security, and data integrity Standardization, integration, consistency, and portability Schedules and budgets Human-Factors Design Goals The Library of Congress experience Measurable human-factors goals Motivations for Human Factors in Design Life-critical systems Industrial and commercial uses Office, home, and entertainment applications Exploratory, creative, and cooperative systems Accommodation of Human Diversity Physical abilities and physical workplaces Cognitive and perceptual abilities Personality differences Cultural and international diversity Users with disabilities Elderly users Three Personal Goals Influencing academic and industrial researchers Providing tools, techniques, and knowledge for systems implementers Raising the computer consciousness of the general public 1.7 Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 36 References 36 General information resources 38 CHAPTER 2 Theories, Principles, and Guidelines Introduction High-Level Theories Conceptual, semantic, syntactic, and lexical model GOMS and the keystroke-level model Seven stages of action Consistency through grammars Widget-level theories 60

3 X Contents 2.3 Syntactic-Semantic Model of User Knowledge Syntactic knowledge Semantic knowledge computer concepts Semantic knowledge task concepts Principles: Recognize the Diversity Usage profiles Task profiles Interaction styles Eight Golden Rules of Dialog Design Preventing Errors Techniques for ensuring correct actions Guidelines: Data Display Organizing the display Getting the user's attention Guidelines: Data Entry Prototyping and Acceptance Testing Balance of Automation and Human Control Adaptive Agents and User Models versus Control Panels Legal Issues Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 92 References 93 CHAPTER 3 Menu Selection and Form Fillin Introduction Semantic Organization Single menus Linear sequences and multiple menus Tree-structured menus Acyclic and cyclic menu networks Item Presentation Sequence Response Time and Display Rate Moving Through Menus Quickly Menus with typeahead the BLT approach Menu names for direct access Menu macros Menu Screen Design Titles Phrasing of menu items Graphic layout and design Selection Mechanisms Typeahead selections System evolution Mixed letters and numbers Arrow-key movement of highlight bar 129

4 Contents 3.8 Graphical User-Interface Menu Features Embedded Menus Form Fillin Form-fillin design guidelines Coded fields Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 137 References 137 CHAPTER 4 Command Languages Introduction Functionality to Support Users' Tasks Command-Organization Strategies Simple command list Command plus arguments Command plus options and arguments Hierarchical command structure The Benefits of Structure Consistent argument ordering Symbols versus keywords Hierarchical structure and congruence Consistency, congruence, and mnemonicity Naming and Abbreviations Specificity versus generality Abbreviation strategies Guidelines for using abbreviations Command Menus Natural Language in Computing Natural-language interaction Natural-language queries Text-database searching Natural-language text generation Adventure and educational games Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 176 References 177 CHAPTER 5 Direct Manipulation Introduction Examples of Direct-Manipulation Systems Display editors and word processors VISICALC and its descendents Spatial data management 188

5 XU Contents Video games Computer-aided design and manufacturing Office automation, databases, and directories Further examples of direct manipulation Explanations of Direct Manipulation Problems with direct manipulation The SSOA model explanation of direct manipulation Visual Thinking and Icons Direct-Manipulation Programming Home Automation Remote Direct Manipulation The Corabi telepathology workstation Typical problems of remote direct manipulation The roots of a theory of remote direct manipulation Virtual Reality Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 229 References 229 CHAPTER 6 Interaction Devices Introduction Keyboards and Function Keys Keyboard layouts Keys Function keys Cursor movement keys Pointing Devices Pointing tasks Direct pointing devices Indirect pointing devices Comparisons of pointing devices Fitts' Law Novel pointing devices Speech Recognition, Digitization, and Generation Discrete word recognition Continuous-speech recognition Speech store and forward Speech generation Audio tones, audiolization, and music Displays Monochrome displays Color displays Television images, videodisks, and compact disks Multiple-display workstations 267

6 Contents хш Projectors, heads-up displays, helmet-mounted displays, and EyePhones Printers Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 270 References 271 CHAPTER 7 Response Time and Display Rate Introduction Definitions Issues to raise Theoretical Foundations Limitations of short-term and working memory Sources of errors Conditions for optimum problem solving Display Rate and Variability Response Time: Expectations and Attitudes Response Time: User Productivity Repetitive control tasks Problem-solving tasks Programming tasks Professionals at work Summary Response Time: Variability Range of variation Experimental results Summary Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 298 References 299 CHAPTER 8 System Messages, Screen Design, and Color Introduction Error Messages Specificity Constructive guidance and positive tone User-centered phrasing Appropriate physical format Development of effective messages Nonanthropomorphic Instructions Display Design Field layout Empirical results 318

7 xiv Contents Display-complexity metrics Multidisplay design Color Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 330 References 331 CHAPTER 9 Multiple-Window Strategies Introduction Individual-Window Design Multiple-Window Design Coordination of Multiple Windows by Tasks Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 362 References 363 CHAPTER 10 Computer-Supported Cooperative Work Introduction Goals of Cooperation Asynchronous Interactions: Different Time, Different Place Electronic Mail Bulletin boards and conferences File-transfer programs Structured processes Synchronous Distributed: Different Place, Same Time Face to Face: Same Place, Same Time Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 390 References 391 CHAPTER 11 Information Exploration Tools Introduction String Search, Database Query, and Indexes Flexible Search Hypertext and Hypermedia Author-system features Authoring or editing hypertext Creating the introduction Converting existing documents and files Multimedia: Videodisk, DVI, CD-ROM, and Beyond Visual Approaches for Information Exploration Graphical Boolean Expressions 423

8 Contents xv Boolean expressions based on aggregation and generalization hierarchies Filter-flow representation of Boolean expressions Dynamic Queries Tree-Maps Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 435 References 435 CHAPTER 12 Printed Manuals, Online Help, and Tutorials Introduction Reading from Paper versus Displays Preparing Printed Manuals Using the SSOA model to design manuals Organization and writing style Nonanthropomorphic descriptions Development process Preparing Online Facilities Online manuals Keyword and keystroke lists Context-sensitive help Online tutorials, demonstrations, and animations Helpful guides Natural-language and intelligent help Experimental results Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 466 References 467 CHAPTER 13 Iterative Design, Testing, and Evaluation Introduction Participatory Design and Task Analysis The Three Pillars of Design Guidelines documents User-interface management systems and rapid prototyping tools Usability laboratories and iterative testing Acceptance Tests Evaluation During Active Use Surveys Interviews and group discussions Online or telephone consultants Online suggestion box or trouble reporting 494

9 xvi Contents Online bulletin board User newsletters and conferences Quantitative Evaluations Controlled psychologically oriented experimentation Continuous user-performance data collection Development Lifecycle Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 500 References 501 CHAPTER 14 User-Interface Development Environments Introduction Specification Methods Multiparty grammars Menu trees Transition diagrams Statecharts User Action Notation (UAN) Programming-Support Tools Screen mockup and prototyping tools Programming toolkits User-interface management systems (UIMSs) Design Tools for Evaluation and Critiquing Practitioner's Summary Researcher's Agenda 530 References 531 AFTERWORD Social and Individual Impact of User Interfaces Hopes and Dreams 536 Human Values and the Future of Technology 538 A Declaration of Responsibility 539 Ten Plagues of the Information Age 540 Preventing the Plagues 544 Overcoming the Obstacle of Animism 545 In the Long Run 548 Practitioner's Summary 549 References 549 Name Index 551 Subject Index 559

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