SYLLABUS UNIT - I UNIT - II UNIT - III UNIT - IV CHAPTER - 1 : INTRODUCTION CHAPTER - 4 : SYNTAX AX-DIRECTED TRANSLATION TION CHAPTER - 7 : STORA

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1 Contents i SYLLABUS UNIT - I CHAPTER - 1 : INTRODUCTION Programs Related to Compilers. Translation Process, Major Data Structures, Other Issues in Compiler Structure, Boot Strapping and Porting. CHAPTER - 2 : LEXICAL ANALYSIS The Role of Lexical Analyzer, Input Buffering, Specification of Tokens, Recognition of Tokens, The Lexical-Analyzer Generator Lex. UNIT - II CHAPTER - 3 : SYNTAX ANALYSIS Introduction, Top-Down Parsing, Brute Forcing, Recursive Descent, Predicative LL(1), Bottom-Up Parsing, Introduction to LR Parsing, Powerful LR Parsers SLR, CALR, LALR, Using Ambiguous Grammars, Parser Generators-Yacc. UNIT - III CHAPTER - 4 : SYNTAX AX-DIRECTED TRANSLATION TION Syntax-Directed Definitions, Evaluation Orders for SDDS, Applications of Syntax Directed Translation. CHAPTER - 5 : SYMBOL TABLE ORGANIZATION Structure of Symbol Table, Symbol Table Organization for Block Structured and Non- Block Structure Languages, Data Structures of Symbol Table. UNIT - IV CHAPTER - 6 : INTERMEDIATE CODE GENERATION Variants of Syntax Trees, Three-Address Code, Types and Declarations, Translation of Expressions, Type Checking, Control Flow. CHAPTER - 7 : STORA ORAGE ORGANIZATION Stack Allocation of Space, Access to Non-Local Data on the Stack, Heap Management, Introduction to Garbage Collection.

2 ii Contents UNIT - V CHAPTER - 8 : CODE GENERATION Issues in the Design of a Code Generator, The Target Language, Addresses in the Target Code Basic Blocks and Flow Graphs, Optimization of Basic Blocks, Peephole Optimization, Register Allocation and Assignment. CHAPTER - 9 : MACHINE CHINE-INDEPENDENT OPTIMIZATIONS TIONS The Principal Sources of Optimizations, Introduction to Data Flow Analysis, Foundation of Data Flow Analysis. CHAPTER - 10 : ERROR RECOVERY Introduction, Error Detecting and Reporting in Various Phases, Lexical Errors, Syntax Errors Handling and Error Recovery in Various Phases.

3 Contents iii compiler construction FOR b.e. (o.u) Iii year ii semester (COMMON TO CSE AND IT) CONTENTS UNIT - I [CH. H. - 1] ] [INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION] INTRODUCTION Compilation Meaning of Translator Meaning of Compiler Why Study Compilers? Compiler Design Challenges Characteristics of Compiler PROGRAMS RELATED TO O COMPILERS Interpreters Characteristics of Interpreter Differences between Compiler and Interpreter Assemblers Linkers Loaders Preprocessors Editors Debuggers Profilers Project Managers

4 iv Contents 1.3 THE TRANSLATION TION PROCESS Scanner (or) Lexial Analysis Parser (or) Syntax Analysis Semantic Analyzer Intermediate Code Generation Code Optimization Code Generation MAJOR DATA A STRUCTURES IN A COMPILER Tokens The Syntax Tree ree The Symbol Table The Literal Table Intermediate Code Temporary Files iles OTHER ISSUES IN COMPILER STRUCTURE Analysis and Synthesis Front End and Back End Passes Language Definition and Compilers Compiler Options and Interfaces Error Handling BOOTSTRAPPING AND PORTING Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers

5 Contents v UNIT - I [CH.. - 2] ] [LEXICAL ANALYSIS YSIS] INTRODUCTION TO LEXICAL ANALYSIS THE ROLE OF LEXICAL ANALYZER Lexical Analysis Versus Parsing Tokens, Patterns, and Lexemes Attributes for Tokens Lexical Errors INPUT BUFFERING Buffer Pairs Sentinels SPECIFICATION OF TOKENS Strings and Languages Operations on Languages Regular Expressions Regular Definitions Extensions of Regular Expressions Solved Problems RECOGNITION OF TOKENS Transition Diagrams Converting Transition Diagrams into Code THE LEXICAL-ANAL ANALYZER GENERATOR OR LEX Use of Lex Structure of Lex Programs Conflict Resolution in Lex The Lookahead Operator Solved Problems Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers

6 vi Contents UNIT - II [CH.. - 3] ] [SYNT SYNTAX AX ANALYSIS YSIS] INTRODUCTION TO SYNTAX ANALYSIS The Role of The Parser The Parsing Process Representative Grammars Syntax Error Handling Error Recovery Strategies Panic-Mode Recovery Phrase-Level Recovery Error Productions Global Correction TOP-DOWN PARSING ARSING Recursive ecursive-descent Parsing FIRST and FOLLOW LL(1) Grammars Transition Diagrams for Predictive Parsers Non-Recursive Predictive Parsing Construction of Predictive Parsing Table Error Recovery in Predictive Parsing Panic-Mode Recovery Phrase-Level Recovery Solved Problems BOTT TTOM-UP PARSING Reductions Handle Pruning Shift-R -Reduce Parsing Conflicts During Shift-R -Reduce Parsing arsing

7 Contents vii 3.4 INTRODUCTION TO LR PARSING : SIMPLE LR Need of LR Parsers arsers Items and the LR(0) Automation CLOSURE of Item Sets The Function GOTO Use of The LR(0) Automation The LR-P -Parsing Algorithm Structure of the LR-P -Parsing Table LR-P -Parser Configurations Behavior of the LR-P -Parser arser Implementation of LR Parsing Algorithm Constructing SLR-P -Parsing Tables Viable Prefixes Solved Problems MORE POWERFUL LR-P -PARSERS ARSERS Canonical LR(1) Items Constructing LR(1) Sets of Items Canonical LR(1) Parsing Tables Solved Problems Constructing LALR Parsing Tables Efficient Construction of LALR Parsing Tables Compaction of LR Parsing Tables SLR Versus LALR USING AMBIGUOUS GRAMMARS Precedence and Associativity to Resolve Conflicts The Dangling-Else Ambiguity Error Recovery in LR Parsing Differences between Top op-down and Bottom-Up Parsers arsers

8 viii Contents 3.7 PARSER GENERATORS ORS The Parser Generator Yacc acc The Declarations Part art The Translation Rules Part The Supporting C-R -Routines Part art Using Yacc with Ambiguous Grammars Creating Yacc Lexical Analyzers with Lex Error Recovery in Yacc BRUTE FORCING Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers UNIT - III [CH.. - 4] ] [SYNT SYNTAX AX-DIRECTED TRANSLATION TION] INTRODUCTION TO O SYNTAX AX-DIRECTED TRANSLATION TION SYNTAX AX-DIRECTED DEFINITIONS Synthesized and Inherited Attributes Evaluating an SDD at the Nodes of a Parse Tree ree EVAL ALUATION ORDERS OF SDD S S Dependency Graphs Ordering the Evaluating of Attributes S-Attributed Definitions L-Attributed Definitions Semantic Rules with Controlled Side Effects APPLICATIONS OF SYNTAX AX-DIRECTED TRANSLATION TION Construction of Syntax Trees The Structure of a Type Solved Problems Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers

9 Contents ix UNIT - III [CH. H. - 5] ] [SYMBOL TABLE ORGANIZATION] INTRODUCTION TO SYMBOL TABLES SYMBOL TABLE FORMAT Attributes of a Symbol Table Contents of a Symbol Table Operations Performed on the Symbol Table Indirection in Symbol Table Entries Ordered and Unordered Symbol Table Symbol Table Organization Techniques Comparison of Three Basic Data Structures Hash Table with Temporary and Permanent Storage Reusing the Storage Space for Names Implementation of Hashed Symbol Table SYMBOL TABLE ORGANIZATION FOR BLOCK STRUCTURED LANGUAGES HASHING TREE STRUCTURE REPRESENTATION TION OF SCOPE INFORMATION BLOCK OCK-STRUCTURES AND NON-BLOCK OCK STRUCTURE STORA ORAGE GE ALLOCA OCATION Basic Issues Activation Record Local Data Non-Local Data Dynamic Scoping STORA ORAGE ALLOCA OCATION STRATEGIES TEGIES Static Allocation Strategy Stack Allocation Strategy

10 x Contents Heap Allocation Strategy Dynamic Storage Allocation Techniques Dangling Reference in Storage Allocation Solved Problems PARAMETER PASSING DATA A STRUCTURES OF SYMBOL TABLE ABLE Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers UNIT - IV [CH. H. - 6] ] [INTERMEDIATE CODE GENERATION] INTRODUCTION TO O INTERMEDIATE TE-CODE GENERATION TION Intermediate Code Forms Postfix Notation (Polish Notation) Prefix Notation VARIANTS OF SYNTAX AX TREE Directed Acyclic Graphs for Expressions The Value alue-number Method for Constructing DAG s s THREE-ADDRESS CODE Addresses and Instructions Quadruples Triples Static Single-Assignment Form Solved Problems TYPES AND DECLARATIONS TIONS Type Expressions Type Equivalence Declarations

11 Contents xi Storage Layout for Local Names Sequences of Declarations Fields in Records and Classes TRANSLATION TION OF EXPRESSIONS Operations within Expressions Incremental Translation ranslation Addressing Array Elements Translation of Array References eferences TYPE CHECKING Rules for Type Checking Type Conversions Overloading of Functions and Operators Type Inference and Polymorphic Functions An Algorithm for Unification CONTROL FLOW Boolean Expressions Short-Circuit Code Flow-of-Control Statements Control-Flow Translation of Boolean Expressions Avoiding Redundant Gotos Boolean Values and Jumping Code Solved Problems Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers

12 xii Contents UNIT - IV [CH. H. - 7] ] [STORAGE ORGANIZATION] INTRODUCTION STORA ORAGE ORGANIZATION TION Static Versus Dynamic Storage Allocation STACK ALLOCA OCATION OF SPACE Activation Trees Activation Records Compile-Time ime Layout of Local Data Downward-Growing Stack Allocation of Activation Records Calling Sequences Variable ariable-l -Length Data on the Stack ACCESS TO O NON-LOCAL OCAL DATA A ON THE STACK CK Data Access without Nested Procedures Issues with Nested Procedures A Language with Nested Procedure Declarations Nesting Depth Access Links Manipulating Access Links Access Links for Procedure Parameters Displays HEAP MANAGEMENT The Memory Manager The Memory Hierarchy of a Computer Locality in Programs Optimization using the Memory Hierarchy

13 Contents xiii Reducing Fragmentation Best-Fit and Next-Fit Object Placement Managing and Coalescing Free Space Manual Deallocation Requests Problems with Manual Deallocation Programming Conventions and Tools INTRODUCTION TO GARBAGE GE COLLECTION Design Goals for Garbage Collections A Basic Requirement Type Safety Performance Metrics Reachability Reference Counting Garbage Collectors Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers UNIT - V [CH. - 8] ] [CODE GENERATION] CODE GENERATION TION ISSUES IN THE DESIGN OF A CODE GENERATOR OR Input to the code Generator The Target Program Memory Management Instruction Selection Register Allocation Evaluation Order THE TARGET LANGUAGE A Simple Target Machine Model Program and Instruction Costs

14 xiv Contents 8.4 ADDRESSES IN THE TARGET CODE Static Allocation Stack Allocation Runun-Time Addresses for Names BASIC BLOCKS AND FLOW GRAPHS Basic Blocks Next-Use Information Flow Graphs Representation of Flow Graphs Loops OPTIMIZATION TION OF BASIC BLOCKS The DAG Representation of Basic Blocks Finding Local Common Subexpressions Dead Code Elimination The Use of Algebraic Identities Representation of Array References Pointer Assignments and Procedure Calls Reassembling Basic Blocks from DAG s PEEPHOLE OPTIMIZATION TION Eliminating Redundant Loads and Stores Eliminating Unreachable Code Flow-of-Control Optimizations Algebraic Simplification and Reduction in Strength Use of Machine Idioms

15 Contents xv 8.8 REGISTER ALLOCA OCATION AND ASSIGNMENT Global Register Allocation Usage Counts Register Assignement for Outer Loops Register Allocation by Graph Coloring Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers UNIT - V [CH. H. - 9] ] [MACHINE-INDEPENDENT OPTIMIZATIONS] MACHINE CHINE-INDEPENDENT OPTIMIZATIONS TIONS THE PRINCIPAL SOURCES OF OPTIMIZATION TION Causes of Redundancy A Running Example Quicksort Semantics-P -Preserving Transformations Global Common Subexpressions Copy Propagation Dead-Code Elimination Code Motion Induction Variables and Reduction in Strength INTRODUCTION TO O DATA-FL -FLOW ANALYSIS The Data-Flow Abstraction The Data-Flow Analysis Schema Transfer Functions Control-Flow Constraints Data-Flow Schemas on Basic Blocks Reaching Definitions Transfer Equations for Reaching Definitions Control-Flow Equations Iterative Algorithm for Reaching Definitions Live-Variable Analysis Available Expressions

16 xvi Contents 9.4 FOUNDATIONS OF DATA-FL -FLOW ANALYSIS Semilattices Partial Orders The Partial Order for a Semilattice Greatest Lower Bounds Lattice Diagrams Product Lattices Height of a Semilattice Transfer Functions Monotone Frameworks Distributive Frameworks rameworks The Iterative Algorithm for General Frameworks Meaning of a Data-Flow Solution The Ideal Solution The Meet-Over Over-P -Paths Solution The Maximum Fixed Point Versus the MOP Solution Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers UNIT - V [CH. - 10] ] [ERROR RECOVERY] INTRODUCTION SOURCES OF ERRORS GOALS OF ERRORS SYNTAX ERRORS Recovery from Syntax Errors Recovery in Top op-down Parsing Recovery in Bottom-Up Parsing arsing Error-R -Recovery in YACC

17 Contents xvii 10.5 SYNTAX ERRORS HANDLING ERROR DETECTING Error Detection in Top op-down Parsers arsers Error Detection in Bottom-Up Parsers ERROR REPORTING ERROR DETECTING IN VARIOUS PHASES Lexical Errors Syntax Errors Semantic Error ERROR REPORTING IN VARIOUS PHASES LEXICAL ERRORS Lexical Error Handling ERROR RECOVERY Error Recovery in Various Phases Error-R -Recovery in Top op-down Parsing arsing Recovery in Bottom-Up Parsing arsing Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers UNIT - VI [CH ] ] [OPTIMIZING FOR PARALLELISM AND LOCALITY OCALITY] OPTIMIZING FOR PARALLELISM AND LOCALITY BASIC CONCEPTS Multiprocessors Parallelism in Applications Amdahl s Law Granularity of Parallelism Loop oop-l -Level Parallelism Data Locality Introduction to Affine Transform Theory

18 xviii Contents 11.3 MATRIX MULTIPL TIPLY : AN IN-DEPTH EXAMPLES The Matrix-Multiplication Algorithm Serial Execution of the Matrix Multiplication Row ow-by -by-r -Row Parallelization Optimizations Changing Data Layout Blocking Cache Interface DATA-REUSE Types of Reuse euse Self Reuse Rank of a Matrix Null Space of a Matrix Self-Spatial Reuse Group Reuse SYNCHRONIZATION BETWEEN PARALLEL LOOPS A Constant Number of Synchronizations Program-Dependence Graphs Hierarchical Time The Parallelization Algorithm Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers UNIT - VI [CH. - 12] ] [LINKERS AND LOADERS] INTRODUCTION TO LINKERS AND LOADERS BASIC LOADERS FUNCTIONS Design of an Absolute Loader A Simple Bootstrap Loader

19 Contents xix 12.3 MACHINE DEPENDENT LOADER FEATURES Relocation Program Linking Algorithm and Data Structures for a Linking Loader MACHINE INDEPENDENT LOADER FEATURES TURES Automatic Library Search Loader Options LOADER DESIGN OPTIONS Linkage Editors Dynamic Linking Short Questions and Answers Expected University Questions with Answers LATEST UNIVERSITY QUESTION PAPERS [April/May ] [Main] [CSE CSE]... QP.1 - QP.2 [April/May ] [Main] [IT IT]... QP.3 - QP.4

20 xx Contents STUDENT NOTES

About the Authors... iii Introduction... xvii. Chapter 1: System Software... 1

Table of Contents About the Authors... iii Introduction... xvii Chapter 1: System Software... 1 1.1 Concept of System Software... 2 Types of Software Programs... 2 Software Programs and the Computing Machine...