Control Structures. Code can be purely arithmetic assignments. At some point we will need some kind of control or decision making process to occur
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1 Control Structures Code can be purely arithmetic assignments At some point we will need some kind of control or decision making process to occur C uses the if keyword as part of it s control structure Use else for opposite condition Roberto Muscedere 1 Any process, whether it be a program or a production line, or even a thought, there is always a need to evaluate some type of condition. The CPUs of today operate very efficiently when working with pure arithmetic. Unfortunately, conditions in programs reduce the efficiency of the CPUs considerably. Although it may not seem like it, a lot of work goes into designing CPUs so that they can predict what a condition will be before it reaches it. This is known as branch prediction. When it incorrectly predicts the branch, processing is essentially stopped for several operational cycles. In order to achieve efficient coding, it is best to reduce the number of conditions while programming. This usually happens during the planning stages of algorithms. The more conditional statements, the more potential errors your code may have if they are not fully tested, and this can take a lot of time. This is not to say that it is bad to use a conditional statement, but you should try to avoid using an excessive amount of them Loops 1
2 Program Control with IF IF executes code if the expression in the brackets evaluates to anything other than 0, or false Generally use a BLOCK for more than 1 line of conditional code int i = -10, j = 20; /* Set the absolute value of i and j */ if ( i<0 ) i = -i; if ( j<0 ) j = -j; Roberto Muscedere 2 The relational operator i<0 is really a function. When it is true, it returns a 1, where as if it is false, it returns a Loops 2
3 Program Control with IF and ELSE ELSE code is executed when IF codes does not In this example, second IF is part of the first ELSE int i = -10, j; /* Find the sign of i and store in j */ if ( i<0 ) j = -1; else if ( i>0 ) j = 1; else j = 0; Roberto Muscedere 3 With every IF there can only be one ELSE, that is if you choose to use it. The term ELSE IF does not really exist in C, but compound IF s do. In this example, there are two IF-ELSE statements, but since there are no braces, it may appear that somehow the statements are connected Loops 3
4 Program Control with IF and ELSE Rewritten in order to examine the connection of the BLOCKS We can remove the braces since each conditional code consists of only one statement if ( i<0 ) j = -1; else if ( i>0 ) j = 1; else j = 0; Roberto Muscedere 4 Here we place the braces in so that you can see how the statements relate. The second IF is the execution block of the first ELSE. Some programming languages have an ELSIF of ELSE-IF statement. C does not do this, but because we don t require the need for braces for single line code blocks, we can effectively make it operate as if it did have a merged command Loops 4
5 Relational and Logical Operators Operator Name Example > Greater than x > y >= Greater than or equal to x >= y < Lesser than x < y <= Lesser than or equal to x <= y == Equal to x == y!= Not equal to x!= y! Logical NOT!x && Logical AND x && y Logical OR x y Roberto Muscedere 5 Whenever a relational or logical operation is performed, either a 1 or a 0 is returned. 1 representing true, and 0 representing false. Relational operators are really like functions. For example, (5 > 2) will always return 1 or true. Where as (1==5) will always return 0 or false. For most comparisons, we will use variables. The concept remains the same Loops 5
6 Most Common Error with IF To test equality, we must use == int i = 10; If we use = the compiler will think it is an assignment, and it will evaluate true and the BLOCK will be executed /* Relational expression is an assignment, and evaluates true */ /* should be i==9 */ if ( i=9 ) /* this code executes */ /* i is 9 */ Roberto Muscedere 6 As mentioned before, assignments are functions. In this example, i=9 returns 9, so the if is considered true because the function returned a non-zero value. If we used i=0, the if would be consider false and the code wouldn t execute, but it is still an error because i is being set to 0 unintentionally Loops 6
7 Using Relational Operators in Assignments Use relational operators in assignments int i = 10, j; In this example, we set a condition on j based on i prior to the IF statement j = ( i==10 ); i *= 100; if (j) /* execute this code */ /* i is not 10, but j is true */ Roberto Muscedere 7 Since relational operators are just functions, we can use them in our variable assignments. Here we determine what the condition will be before actually executing any code. We can then modify the original condition element, i, and later process the code based on the original condition Loops 7
8 Conditional Expression Use conditional expression for in line IF-ELSE Usage: (Condition)? True : False; True & False can be any statement; must be set int i = -10, j = 20; /* Set the absolute value of i and j */ i = ( i<0 )? -i : i; ( j<0 )? j = -j : 0; Can be used anywhere Roberto Muscedere 8 Conditional Expressions can also be nested. This is one reason they are used. Here is an example of the sign() function (shown before) using only conditional expressions: j = ( i > 0 )? 1 : ( i < 0 )? -1 : 0; The first condition checks if i is greater than 1. If true, it returns 1. Else if check if i is less than 1. If true, it returns -1. Else, it returns Loops 8
9 Program Control with SWITCH SWITCH is similar to IF No relational operators Only one value For structured comparison For example, user inputs Can reuse some parts of code int i = 2; switch( i ) case 1: /* 1 */ break; case 2: /* 2, follow to 3 */ case 3: /* 3 */ break; default: /* neither */ Roberto Muscedere 9 The SWITCH command is mostly used in situations where you are comparing to a specific value. For example, a menu where the user is asked to select an option or number. Each case would then perform the specific operation. The BREAK command is used to leave the SWITCH command. In the example provided above, the case where i=2, the code for 2 will be executed and the it will follow through to the code for i=3. This happens because the SWITCH was not terminated by a BREAK. The last case, DEFAULT is for any situation where the condition of the SWITCH was not met. You will generally not see BREAK commands on the last case because these is nothing to follow through to. SWITCH exists for optimization reasons. Consider, for example, having to compare a variable with up to 200 numbers. Using IF s and ELSE s will cause the computer to check the variable with each number in series just as the code was written (e.i. IF-ELSE-IF-ELSE- IF-ELSE ). SWITCH instead tries to test the numbers in parallel therefore generating more efficient code Loops 9
10 Loop Structures At some point we will want to perform repetitive tasks (without typing a lot) C uses the for, do, and while keywords as part of it s looping structure These methods operate very much the same Roberto Muscedere 10 For, Do, and While loops all operate essentially the same. The only real difference is when the looping condition is evaluated Loops 10
11 Loop Control with FOR FOR requires 4 parameters 3 in brackets Separated by ; 4 th is the code to execute for each cycle of the loop Use BLOCK for multiple lines Optionally no BLOCK for a single line int i; /* Count from 0 to 9 */ for( i=0 ; i<10 ; i++ ) /* print i here */ Roberto Muscedere Loops 11
12 Loop Control with FOR 1 st parameter Initialisation Can be multiple separated with, 2 nd parameter Condition Relational expression which determines if the code should be executed (if condition is true) int i; /* Count from 0 to 9 */ for( i=0 ; i<10 ; i++ ) /* print i here */ Roberto Muscedere Loops 12
13 Loop Control with FOR 3 rd parameter Increment Can be multiple separated with, Executed after code to increment or change variables Code Order: Execute 1 st parameter Evaluates 2 nd parameter Execute Code Execute 3 rd parameter int i; /* Count from 0 to 9 */ for( i=0 ; i<10 ; i++ ) /* print i here */ Roberto Muscedere 13 Remember the code order: 1. Execute 1 st parameters 2. Evaluate 2 nd parameter 3. If false, stop for loop 4. Execute Code 5. Execute 3 rd parameters 6. Go to step Loops 13
14 Loop Control with FOR Example with two variables i and j are initialised in FOR expression i and j are changed in FOR expression int i, j; /* Count i from 0-9 */ /* Count j from 9 0 */ for( i=0, j=9 ; i<10 ; i++, j-- ) /* print i and j here */ Roberto Muscedere 14 The output of this program would be: Loops 14
15 Loop Control with FOR Either or all parameters can be omitted Don t have to initialise Can initialise outside the FOR structure Don t have to increment Can increment inside the code block Don t need a condition Assumed TRUE if blank int i, j; /* Count i from 0-9 */ i = 0; for( ;i<10; ) /* print i here */ i++; for( ;; ) /* loop forever */ Roberto Muscedere 15 You will probably never use these types of FOR loops, but it is good to be aware of their syntax when you are debugging/reading someone else s code. This is typically used when an internal condition is being evaluated to control the loop, or perhaps a link to the operating system where it would terminate your code Loops 15
16 Loop Control with FOR Can leave a LOOP with the BREAK command int i = 0, j = 9; Can skip the rest of the code block with the CONTINUE command /* Print i from 0-9 */ /* Print j only when i is greater than 5 */ for( ;; ) /* print i here */ i++; j--; if ( i>=10 ) break; if ( i<=6 ) continue; /* print j here */ Roberto Muscedere 16 Sometimes it is difficult to incorporate all of the conditions which drive a loop into a single statement. In these situations, we can use BREAK which will get us out of a loop immediately. In the event that we need to restart the loop, we have CONTINUE. It simply jumps back to the start of the loop. Any conditions are evaluated at this time, so the loop may in fact end if the terminating conditions are met. It is similar to a GOTO just like BREAK, but no line numbers are used. Some programmers don t like using BREAK or CONTINUE, but they are pretty easy to follow. Of course, as loops get larger, it may become a little more difficult to follow Loops 16
17 Loop Control with DO-WHILE DO requires 2 parameters 1 st is the code to execute for each cycle of the loop Use BLOCK for multiple lines Optionally no BLOCK for a single line 2 nd is the WHILE command containing the looping condition Loop back if TRUE ; after WHILE int i; /* Count from 0 to 9 */ i = 0; do /* print i here */ i++; while( i<10 ); Roberto Muscedere 17 In a DO-WHILE loop the code is executed first, then the condition is evaluated Loops 17
18 Example: DO-WHILE The condition is simply i When not zero, the condition is TRUE When zero, the condition is FALSE When i is not zero, continue the loop int i; /* Count from 9 to 0 */ i = 10; do i--; /* print i here */ while( i ); Roberto Muscedere 18 In this example, i is the condition. This is very common to use variables only as conditions in C programming. The primary reason for this is because it translates to assembly very well. In assembly, when a variable is loaded, a special flag or condition is set which is known as the ZERO FLAG. This is automatic. There is a jump or branch command which will either execute or not execute based on this flag. This is more efficient than the traditional compare because reading a variable, comparing a variable, and then jumping based on the condition requires one more step than using the ZERO FLAG Loops 18
19 Loop Control with WHILE WHILE requires 2 parameters 1 st is the looping condition (in brackets) Loop back if TRUE 2 nd is the code to execute for each cycle of the loop Use BLOCK for multiple lines Optionally no BLOCK for a single line No ; after BLOCK int i; /* Count from 0 to 9 */ i = 0; while( i<10 ) /* print i here */ i++; Roberto Muscedere 19 The WHILE loop evaluates the condition first, the executes the code if it is true; very similar to a FOR loop. This is almost similar to an IF, but remember that the code will loop back Loops 19
20 Differences between DO-WHILE and WHILE Loops DO-WHILE Code block is executed Condition is then evaluated Go back WHILE Condition is evaluated Code block is then executed Go back Roberto Muscedere 20 These are the key differences between DO-WHILE and WHILE. You can remember them easily by looking at the code. For DO-WHILE the condition is after the code, implying that the code executes first. In the case of the WHILE loop, the condition is before the code implying the condition executes first Loops 20
21 Loop Control with DO-WHILE The BREAK and CONTINUE commands can be used in DO-WHILE loops int i = 0, j = 9; /* Print i from 0-9 */ /* Print j only when i is greater than 5 */ Forever loop when using WHILE(1) do /* print i here */ i++; j--; if ( i>=10 ) break; if ( i<=6 ) continue; /* print j here */ while( 1 ); Roberto Muscedere 21 Placing a 1 as a condition in the while statement indicates that the condition is always TRUE. BREAK and CONTINUE statements operate the same as in FOR loops Loops 21
22 Loop Control with WHILE The BREAK and CONTINUE commands can be used in WHILE loops Forever loop when using WHILE(1) int i = 0, j = 9; /* Print i from 0-9 */ /* Print j only when i is greater than 5 */ while( 1 ) /* print i here */ i++; j--; if ( i>=10 ) break; if ( i<=6 ) continue; /* print j here */ Roberto Muscedere Loops 22
23 Example: WHILE The condition is simply i When not zero, the condition is TRUE When zero, the condition is FALSE When i is not zero, continue the loop int i; /* Print i from 9 to 0 */ i = 10; while( i ) i--; /* print i here */ Roberto Muscedere Loops 23
School of Computer Science CPS109 Course Notes 5 Alexander Ferworn Updated Fall 15
Table of Contents 1 INTRODUCTION... 1 2 IF... 1 2.1 BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS... 3 2.2 BLOCKS... 3 2.3 IF-ELSE... 4 2.4 NESTING... 5 3 SWITCH (SOMETIMES KNOWN AS CASE )... 6 3.1 A BIT ABOUT BREAK... 7 4 CONDITIONAL
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