Topic 4 Transfer of Data in ICT Systems

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1 Topic 4 Transfer of Data in ICT Systems Key The Key concepts for this topic are: Students awareness of current and emerging communication technologies Basic elements of an ICT network Characteristics of networks Uses of communication technologies Standards 4.1 Basic Elements of an ICT System The basic elements of a network consist of the following: Communication Devices Network Software Data Transfer Media Communication Devices Communication Devices are the basic hardware needed when creating a network and the main components are described below: Network Interface Card The old network card shown has both co-axial and normal cable inputs, and is simply fitted into a spare slot at the back of the computer to connect to the motherboard. On most current computers the network interface card is integrally designed and fitted into the motherboard, as networking is now considered to be the norm rather than an extra feature. Most modern computers will include a wireless network facility in addition to the cabled connection. Bridge If the two networks are of the same type they can be connected together using a bridge. The bridge simply copies data that is being transmitted from one network onto the other. Hub A hub is a device for connecting many Ethernet cable type devices, such as computers; it has several ports through which these devices are connected, and the data received is sent out again to all ports bar the input port. Gateway If the networks are of different types then the job of passing data between them is more complicated. Data that is sent from one network to the other will need to be converted from the format that is used on the sending network into the format that is used on the receiving network. This job is done by a gateway. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 31 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

2 Router In complex network such as the Internet there are many different routes that data could be sent down to travel from one computer or subnet to another. Devices called routers are used to determine an efficient route for this type of data transfer. Routers are also used in the home network environment so that the internet can be shared by more than one computer from a single input. Switches These are sometimes known as 'intelligent hubs', in that the switch does the same as a hub by connecting devices to link them as a single unit. However, it does not automatically send traffic to every other port, but determines the destination address of the data packet and uses switching to send it on to that destination address only. An array of switches with connecting Ethernet cables is shown in the diagram on the right; this technique is commonly used in business so that a local network is divided into a number of subnets. Switched data transfer is more efficient than hub transfer as the data is transferred to the destination line output, rather than every line Network Software Network Operating Software (often known as Netware) is an operating system that includes special functions for connecting computers and devices into a local-area network (LAN). Popular network operating software includes: Novell NetWare Windows NT, 2000, 2003, 2008 Server Sun Solaris Unix & Linux Network management is a time consuming role and the scope for making errors is immense, so modern network operating systems are usually windows based to give the network manager a highly usable system; so network operating systems also include many features to help manage the network, including: Basic support for Ethernet ports Security features such as authentication, authorisation, logon restrictions and access control The provision of file, print, web services, back-up and replication services at workstations The provision of basic operating system features such as support for processors, protocols, automatic hardware detection and support multi-processing of applications Data Transfer Media Data transfer in networks can be by physical cabling, fibre optics cabling and, increasingly, wireless transmission. Physical Cabling can be either twisted or untwisted pair (UTP) where the core of the cable is a copper conductor. Cabling is expensive to install, mainly due to the cost of labour of the installer as they route the various cables to each workstation form the server. However the transmission speed of basic cabling is higher than wireless, depending upon the particular cable used. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 32 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

3 Fibre Optic Cabling is often used as the backbone on a network cabling structure. It is quite expensive to purchase and requires a skilled technician for installation as special devices are fitted to terminate each end of the fibre optic link. It is very small, robust, and extremely fast due to the lack of resistance of the conducting method; also it is not affected by electrical interference. Wireless transmission, commonly called Wi-Fi, sounds like the dream ticket for networking, as the considerable cost of cable installation is saved. The wireless technique is especially useful in listed buildings where it is not possible to fit physical cables due to planning restrictions. In some cases the range of wireless transmission is limited which can cause irregularity of service and also there is high power consumption from typical wireless devices. This method has become almost the standard networking system in the home environment as it is cheap to install due to the lack of physical cabling and maintains flexibility in terms of the location of individual workstations. Data Transmission Data is transmitted in computer networking by using one of several techniques, such as frame relay, VPN or broadband. Frame relay consists of an efficient data transmission technique used to send digital information quickly and cheaply. It is a message forwarding system in which data packets, called frames, are passed from one or many start-points to one or many destinations via a series of intermediate node points. VPM (virtual private network) and dedicated broadband services such as DSL (digital subscriber line) have become more widely available and will ultimately take the place of frame relay data transmission. At this time many rural areas worldwide lack DSL and cable modem services and so in these cases the least expensive type of always-on" connection remains frame-relay lines; so by way of example, a retail chain of shops may use frame relay for connecting rural stores into their company WAN. 4.2 Characteristics of Networks The terms World Wide Web, the Web and the Internet are often interchanged but these terms have different meanings as outlined below: The Internet can be thought of as a massive network of networks, where it connects millions of computers together globally, forming a network in which any computer can communicate with any other computer providing that they are both connected to the Internet. Information that travels over the Internet does so via a variety of languages known as protocols. The Internet is used for , instant messaging and FTP or File Transfer Protocol which is used to transfer files from one computer to another over a network. The World Wide Web is often termed as the Web, and it is a technique for accessing information over the medium of the Internet, where it retrieves information stored on websites. The Web utilises browsers, such as Internet Explorer or Mozilla Firefox, to access Web documents called Web pages that are linked to each other via hyperlinks. The Web makes use of Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) to access files as this is a standard supported by most web browsers and hard platforms. Web pages are normally written in HyperText Markup Language (HTML) and can contain many features including graphics, sounds, text and video. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 33 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

4 4.2.1 The Characteristics of Intranets and Extranets Intranet An intranet is a network based on the internet for an organisation and it is only accessible to the employees of the organisation. An intranet looks and acts like other websites, except it is fire-walled to prevent unauthorised access; in many cases a server known as a Web Server is dedicated to drive the intranet within an organisation. The whole purpose of an intranet is to share organisation specific information, for example: Productivity of the workforce can be improved as intranets help users to locate and view information faster and use applications relevant to their roles and responsibilities, governed by their access rights. Employee time management can be improved by linking to relevant information as needed rather than targeting the whole workforce with irrelevant s. Strategic initiatives can be communicated to the organisation via the intranet, including: the purpose of an initiative, what the initiative is aiming to achieve, who is responsible for the initiative, and any results achieved so far. Web publishing can be used to promote a paper free environment where documents are published on the intranet, for example: health & safety manuals, company policies, codes of practice, expense forms, business standards, and online training courses. Extranet The term extranet refers to the extension of an organisation s intranet to users from outside of the organisation. As described an intranet is available to members of an organisation protected by a firewall, so additional security will need to be in place before access can be given to people outside of the organisation.. The normal method used is to give customers or business partners a valid Username, Password with appropriate access rights to suit their purpose, and what aspect of the intranet they can view. A typical example would be an online book company such as Amazon, where you type in your password to access your account details and the contents of the store, but they prevent you from having access to all of their private business details. Virtual Learning Environments VLE A virtual learning environment (VLE) is mainly used in the school context and it is similar in principle to an extranet, where the students can logon to the school system from home and continue with any work that they started in school. When students logon to the system at school they will have a more individualised workspace than before with information specific to the subject options they have chosen as the tutor can upload files directly for the use of the students they teach; with some systems it is also possible the student can customise their workspace area. The use of VLE in schools is increasing due to a Government initiative that all state sector schools should eventually have a system in place. A VLE is a software tool which brings together resources for curriculum mapping, delivery, assessment, tutor support, communication and tracking. The experience of a learning platform varies from school to school. However, where there is a strong determination to embed the platform into the working practices of the school, the benefits for the whole school are impressive. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 34 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

5 Some of the benefits of VLE include: Anytime/anywhere learning as the student can work at home or anywhere that has web access. Greater parental involvement as they can logon to the system and have access to their particular child s performance information. Personalised learning as they have only have relevant files in their workspace. Better use of teacher time (compared with manual systems) as they can move work into the workspace area of the student groups they are teaching. Cross-institutional working so that links can be forged between different schools, so that, for example, you can promote a common interest in a modern language or a different perspective from the countries involved in a history project. Pupil inclusion so that a student that is long term sick can continue to keep reasonably up to date with the work Wide Area Networks Wide Area Networks (WANs) span broad geographical distances entire regions, states, continents, or the entire globe. The most universal and powerful WAN is the Internet. Computers connect to a WAN through public networks such as the telephone system or private cable systems, or through leased lines or satellites, using data transmission techniques as described above. The diagram shows a Wide Area network for a multi national company with four offices in Europe. There is no real limit to the amount of offices they could have on their WAN Metropolitan Area Networks A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. Typically they connect LANs (local area networks) using high speed technologies and in some cases provides efficient connections to a wide area network (WAN). The main differences between MANs and LANs or WANs are: The network size falls between LANs and WANs. A MAN typically covers an area of between 5 and 50 km range or the size of a city. A MAN (like a WAN) is not generally owned by a single organisation. The MAN, its communications links and equipment are generally owned either by a consortium of users or by a network service provider who sells the service to the users. A MAN often acts as a high speed network to allow sharing of regional resources. It is also frequently used to provide a shared connection to other networks using a link to a WAN. MAN connectivity can be either by cables at suitable access points or can make use of wireless hot spots. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 35 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

6 4.2.4 Local Area Networks A LAN (local area network) operates over a relatively small area; in most cases LANs are either a single building or group of buildings such as a school or a small manufacturing business. As shown in the diagram a typical LAN connects a series of workstations, personal computers and peripherals. The advantage of this system is that most users can share peripherals like printers and data or files. In the example shown an Ethernet cable system is used, which is common for PC networks; whereas Macintosh networks are based on the AppleTalk Network cable system which is an integral part of Macintosh computers. LANs are capable of transmitting data at faster rates than data can be transmitted over telephone lines; but for larger areas or very large sites it is possible to join more than one LAN together to form a WAN using normal telecommunication links Network Topologies A network topology is a way of describing the interconnections and cabling of a group of computers. The three main topologies used are outlined below. Ring The ring topology is shown in the diagram where each workstation is connected to the workstations on either side of it; then the last workstation is linked to the first to complete the ring. Although there is no central server in the ring system, it is possible that one workstation may control access to the network. Each workstation can communicate with any other in the ring by addressing it directly. It is easy to add more devices to this system as workstations are daisy-chained together, but if a network cable breaks anywhere then the whole system fails. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 36 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

7 Bus When the bus topology is used each workstation is connected to a single cable (or backbone) which links all of the workstations. Data can be transmitted in either direction along the main cable and workstations can communicate with their peers, as well as with peripherals and servers. The cost of network cable, particularly fibre optic, and the cost of network cable installation can be significant; this is therefore the cheapest network topology as the least cabling is required. If the main network cable breaks anywhere then none of the workstations can access the network, although if one workstation fails it does not affect the rest of the network. One of the biggest disadvantages is that if there is heavy network traffic the system performance will fall off dramatically. Star The star network topology is based on connecting each workstation to a single point such as a hub which may also be linked to a file server. All communications takes place via the central hub and if it fails the whole network will break down, although if only one of the network cables breaks only the computer connected to that cable is affected This solution uses the most cable as each workstation has an individual link with the hub, but it has a great advantage in that different workstations may need to move different volumes of data and this topology allows for different cable capacities to be implemented to suit the needs of a particular workstation Peer to Peer Networks Peer-to-peer networks do not have special workstations which are used as servers. Instead any workstation on the network can load information from the hard disk of any other workstation. In the diagram it should be noted that all workstations are linked to each other. However it is obvious that this structure could not work efficiently for a large number of workstations due to the quantity of cabling and connections. Also any workstation on the network can use any printer connected to any other computer. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 37 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

8 Peer-to-peer networks are very much cheaper to set up and easier to manage than server based networks, but there are some security issues as resources are shared with other users and there is no implementation of access rights; consequently peer-to-peer networks are used mainly by small businesses who trust their employees and by home users who do not have the technical staff to maintain a conventional server based network. One of the big disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network is that the system can t be backed up from a central location; unfortunately this puts the onus on individual users of workstations to back up their work when required, which makes it difficult to implement an automatic system and also there is a risk of an individual forgetting to backup their work Client Server Networks The client / server model has become one of the central ideas of network computing. In a typical network the client is considered to be the many workstations on the network and the server or file server is the more powerful system that interacts with the clients; this technical configuration is widely used in educational establishments. The basic operation is where the client, makes a service request from the server, which then fulfils the request; for example, a web browser at the client computer may access information at any web server in the world. In the school context a student logs on to a workstation and opens a word processor application. The student then selects a file or document for editing (requested from the server) and the document is sent to them from the server to make the required changes. Whenever the document is saved the changes will be made to the file server location for the document. The main advantages of the client / server structure are: The system facilitates a centralised backup. Security policies for access control and associated usernames are managed centrally. Centralised data which is more consistent as there is only one copy in use. Lost data can be restored centrally for all users. The main disadvantages of the client / server structure are: Servers are expensive, at least ten times dearer than normal workstation. Network management is a skilled and necessary task for system maintenance. It is expensive and time consuming to implement, due to the cost of a network operating system, which is usually priced by the number of clients and the labour involved in the initial set up. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 38 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

9 4.3 Standards of Communication There is a need for common standards when transferring data to ensure that different manufacturers of both hardware and software can interact in a compatible manner. The two types of standards that exist in the computing industry are de facto and de jure which have originated in the following way: De Jure standards mean by law and so standards are set by a legislative group such as ISO (international standards organisation). In the computing industry the vast majority of manufacturers will comply with standards that have been set rather than run the risk of making a product that is incompatible with other. Cabling and signal standards for USB connectors (Universal Serial Bus) have gained hugely in popularity and since they re all made to the same specification there will be compatibility between manufacturers. De Facto standards are where a common standard is set by the nature of market domination. It has not necessarily received formal approval by way of a standardisation process, but becomes an accepted standard that manufacturers will adhere to in order to remain compatible with the market leader. The introduction and success of Microsoft Windows mean that it has dominated the personal computer market and other software manufacturers were compelled to produce a well-matched interface to maintain their competitive position. 4.4 Protocols A protocol is a set of rules that are agreed to regulate communication or the transfer of data between devices. Many of the key protocols used relate to data transfer across networks, including: TCP / IP (or transmission control protocol / internet protocol is the basis for internet data transfer. TCP outlines how data is broken into packets and IP is used to set up an approved method for addressing those packets. HTTP (and HTTPS the secure method) is used to request and transfer HTML web pages across the internet. FTP or file transfer protocol defines the way in which files can be downloaded from the Internet; files can take many forms such as software, graphics, audio files, text files and videos. SMTP / POP3 stands for simple mail transfer protocol / post office protocol version 3. SMTP is used to push a mail message to the server and POP3 permits a workstation to dynamically access a maildrop from the server. AQA AS INFO 2 Course Companion Page 39 of 105 ZigZag Education 2008

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