Introduction to Networking
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1 Networking BASICS Introduction to Networking... 2 Network Media... 4 Network Design... 5 Network Architectures... 7 Protocols and Network Software
2 Introduction to Networking A computer network is defined as multiple computers and devices that are all connected together. By connecting the computers together, the capabilities of each computer are increased so the users can accomplish more. The purpose of a computer network is to share. Application software, utility software, and the data that serves as input into the software can all be shared across a network. Computer hardware can also be shared on a computer network. Printers, fax machines, scanners, modems, hard disk drives, CD-ROM drives, and DVD drives are just a few of the hardware devices that can be shared across a computer network. Computer networks can be important tools that help improve communication between users. A special category of software that assists with communication over a computer network is known as groupware. Groupware refers to programs that help people work together collectively even if they are located remotely from each other. One of the most common groupware applications used across computer networks is electronic mail, or . Groupware services also include electronic calendars, collaborative writing software, and video conferencing. The communication that takes place between devices on a computer network is known as telecommunications. Telecom-munications is defined as transmitting information over a distance and is generally considered to be a two-way transmission of voice, video, or data Computer networks allow the computers connected to the network to be managed from one central location. Software updates can be pushed across the network to all computers, thus eliminating the need for support staff to visit every office and perform the new installation. Problem diagnosis can be performed across the network. Centralized management can be used for training as well. Computer networks are generally classified two different ways. The first classification of networks involves the device that actu-ally controls the network. In a peer-to-peer network, no single high-powered computer controls and manages the network. The computers collectively run the network instead of a special dedicated computer doing it. These networks are suitable for small offices that need to share a printer or computer data. The second type of network classified by the device that con-trols the network is known as a server-based network. Unlike a peer-to-peer network, a server-based computer network is con-trolled by at least one special high-powered computer. These special computers are called servers, while the individual com-puters on the network are called clients. Servers are usually dedicated to running the network and do not function as clients. Instead, their sole job is to service requests quickly from the network clients and ensure the security of the software and hardware. There are many different types of specialized servers. 2
3 Networks can also be classified by geography or how close the devices are to each other. There are two categories of networks based on geography. The first is a local area network (LAN). A LAN is a computer network that has all the computers relatively close to each other. They operate at high speeds for a low cost. A wide area network (WAN) transmits over a public thorough-fare, such as a road, highway, railroad, or body of water. A WAN service must be purchased from a carrier. WANs are managed by the carrier instead of by the user. Compared to LANs, the cost of WANs is high and they operate at a low speed. 3
4 Network Media Switching involves moving (switching) the signal from one wire or frequency to another. A circuit switched network creates a dedicated and direct physical connection between the sender and receiver. No other transmissions can take place while the connection is active, but once the transmission is ended, other connections can be made with other devices. Circuit switching is ideal for voice communications. Computer networks sending data use packet switched networks. Packet switching requires that the data transmission be broken into smaller units called packets. Each packet is then sent independently through the network to reach the destination. There are many different types of network media, yet they all can be classified into three major categories: copper, fiber optic, and wireless. Thin coaxial cable is approximately one-quarter of an inch in diameter, has a single copper wire at its center, and is surrounded by a layer of insulation. Around the insulation is a braided copper mesh channel, and everything is covered by a thick outer shield of insulation. Twisted pair cable has become the standard today for copper cabling used in computer net-works, replacing thin coaxial cable. Twisted pair cable is two insulated copper wires that are twisted around each other. Each pair is then bundled together with other pairs in a jacket. There are two types of twisted pair cables. Shielded twisted pair (STP) cables have a foil shielding on the inside of the jacket, which reduces interference. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables do not have any shielding. A fiber optic cable uses a very thin cylinder of glass, instead of copper, at its center. Fiber optic cables send light impulses instead of transmitting electrical signals. Wireless communica-tion uses no visible connection, such as a copper cable or fiber optic line, between the network devices. Instead, the transmis-sion is sent and received through invisible waves. Transmission signals can be sent by infrared light waves or radio frequency waves. When connecting a personal computer to the transmission media on a LAN, hardware known as a network interface card (NIC) is used. A NIC serves as the connection between the personal computer and the network media. The NIC connects to the computer on its base by plugging into one of the expansion slots of the computer. The other connection, found on the side of the NIC, is accessible from the outside of the computer and has connections for the cables to plug into the 4
5 network (or an antenna for wireless transmissions). These connections depend on the type of network media being used. Network Design Topology refers to the physical layout of the network devices and cabling and how all the components communicate with each other. Computer network topology refers to how the computer network is arranged. There are four basic types of computer network topologies: mesh, bus, ring, and star. A mesh topology is also called a point-to-point topology. Each device is connected directly to all other devices on the network. A mesh topology is sometimes used in a wide area network (WAN) setting to ensure that all the sites continue to transmit in the event of a cable failure or another similar problem. Mesh topologies are rarely used in a LAN. LANs typically use a multipoint topology in which each computer on the network has just one connection. This connection is attached to a single cable that is shared by all other devices on the network. The most common type of multipoint topology is a bus topology. A computer network bus topology is characterized by one starting point and one ending point. A bus network topology works well for smaller networks and is inexpensive to install. However, it can become slow when more devices are added to the network. 5
6 A star topology describes a network in which all the devices are connected to a central device known as a hub, which is respon-sible for receiving and forwarding packets to other devices on the network. Because everything is centralized in a star topology, it is the easiest topology to manage and troubleshoot. A multipoint ring topology is the opposite of a bus. A bus has two end points, but a ring is a circle with no ends. All the devices on the network are connected to the ring. Unlike a bus topology, in which the network devices do not play an active role in the network, each device has additional network functions in a ring topology. A ring topology works well for a computer network with many devices attached to it. 6
7 Not all topologies are strictly mesh, bus, star, or ring. Some variations of these topologies, known as hybrid topologies, are also used. These variations are actually combinations of two or more topologies. A star bus topology is typically used to connect multiple hubs in star topologies with a bus topology and provides additional fault tolerance. A star ring topology is wired like a star, but functions like a ring. The packets in a star ring do not go directly to the next device on the ring, but instead go to a central hub. Network Architectures In the early 1980s, the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) began work on developing computer network architecture standards. Known as Project 802, this work estab-lished the foundation for three network architecture standards that make up over 95 percent of the LANs in use today. These three dominant standards are Ethernet (802.3), token ring (802.5), and wireless (802.11). IEEE Project set specifications for a type of local area network known as Ethernet. Several versions of Ethernet trans-mit at 10 Mbps, but these are rarely used today. 10Base5, also called Standard Ethernet, required the use of thick coaxial cable. Other versions of 10 Mbps Ethernet were designed to run over fiber optic cable in specific settings. 10Base2 is a version of Ethernet that used to be very popular and is still used today, although not as extensively. 10Base2 is a bus topology that uses contention (CSMA/CD) and requires thin coax cable as the transmission media. 10Base-T also runs at 10 Mbps, uses CSMA/CD, and can support a total of 1,024 devices on the network. 10Base-T is a star-wired bus topology, which means it functions like a bus (in that each packet makes a stop at every device), but is wired like a star (with one central controlling device). As faster network architectures were needed beyond 10 Mbps, the IEEE subcommittee began work on creating a new Ethernet standard called 100Base-T (or Fast Ethernet). 100Base-T has many of the same basic characteristics as 10Base-T. It uses CSMA/CD as its channel access method, the topology is a star-wired bus, and it continues to use the same basic equipment (such as hubs in distribution racks with patch panels). The only new items for 100Base-T networks were 100-Mbps NICs and 100-Mbps hubs. To increase the speed even more, a switch (or a switching hub) is used. A switch knows which segment goes to which network device. This dramatically increases the bandwidth on the network because it decreases the traffic and the number of collisions. Ethernet networks that use switching hubs are often called Switched Ethernet. 7
8 Gigabit Ethernet (or 1000Base-T) is the standard that most closely resembles 100Base-TX. 1000Base-T is a star topology that uses Category 5 or higher cabling. 1000Base-T achieves its higher speed by increasing the number of bits sent and sending data in over all four pairs of wires simultaneously. 10G Ethernet transmits at 10 billion bits per second. IEEE Project set specifications for a type of local area network known as token ring. Token ring runs at 16 Mbps and uses twisted pair cable in a hybrid star ring topology. The packets in a star ring do not go directly to the next device on the ring; instead, they go to a central hub, which then sends the packet to the next device on the ring. At the center of a token ring network is a hub, called the Multistation Access Unit (MAU). Token ring also has the ability to diagnose and avoid network problems. Wireless local area networks (WLANs) are found anywhere a user needs mobility but still must remain connected to a net-work. The list of components necessary for a WLAN is short. Only wireless network interface cards and access points are needed for communication to take place. A wireless NIC per-forms the same functions as a wired NIC except an antenna is used to send and receive radio frequency signals. An access point (AP) is a device that contains a radio transceiver (to send and receive signals) along with an RJ-45 wired network inter-face, which allows it to connect by cable to a standard wired network. 8
9 Some basic rules should be followed for good network design. First, switches in an Ethernet network must be configured in a hierarchy, sometimes known as an inverted tree. In a hierarchy, only one possible path exists between any two devices. Secondly, smaller network seg-ments are better than larger network segments. Smaller segments make managing a network easy to do. Segmenting can also be accom-plished by dividing the network into a hierarchy using switches. Core switches are those switches that are farther up in the hierarchy and carry traffic between switches. Workgroup switches are connected directly to the devices on the network. Lower-cost hubs can often be substituted for switches at the workgroup level. Segmenting can also be accomplished by grouping devices into logical groupings. This is known as creating a virtual LAN (VLAN). Protocols and Network Software The International Standards Organization (ISO) released a set of specifications that was intended to describe how dissimilar computers could be connected together on a network. Called the Open Systems Interconnections (OSI) reference model, it illustrates how a network device prepares data for delivery over the network to another device and how data is handled when it is received. The key to the OSI reference model is layers. The model breaks networking steps down into a series of seven dif-ferent layers. Each layer cooperates with the layer immediately above and below it by sending and receiving information. The rules for communication between network devices are known as protocols. These protocols are essential for proper communication to take place between the OSI reference models on the network devices. Instead of having just one single proto-col, computer networks typically employ several different proto-cols that function together. This combination of protocols is known as a 9
10 protocol stack or a protocol suite. Protocols use one of two different methods for delivering data through a network: connectionless protocols, which place the packets on the net-work and then assume that they will arrive at the destination, and connection-oriented protocols, which establish a connection between the two devices before sending any packets. As each packet is received, an acknowledgment is sent back to the sender. The most common protocol suite used today for LANs as well as the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Because it is a suite, TCP/IP is composed of several different protocols that all function together. Although the TCP/IP suite is composed of several different protocols, the two major protocols are those that make up its name, TCP and IP. The IP is responsible for addressing the packets and sending them on the correct route to the destination. Each device on a TCP/IP computer network must have a unique number. Com-puters on a TCP/IP network use a logical address instead. This logical address, called an IP address, is assigned to each host computer. Because TCP/IP is a connection-oriented protocol, it establishes a session, or link, between the sending and receiving devices. This session is created through a three-way handshake be-tween the devices. The current version of the IP protocol is ver-sion 4, called IPv4. Developed in 1981, long before the Internet was universally popular, IPv4 has begun to show some weak-nesses. The next generation of the IP protocol is IPv6. IPv6 provides several significant improvements. IP addresses under IPv6 will be 16 bytes long or four times the length of IPv4 adresses. IPv6 also uses a fixed packet header size of 24 bytes, so information always appears in the same place. This speeds up finding information in the packet and processing the packet. Software that runs on the client computer performs many differ-ent functions that enable the device to function effectively on the network. The Network Device Interface Specifications (NDIS) and Open Date-link Interface (ODI) specifications outline precise standards regarding NIC network driver interfaces. Drivers that follow these standards allow multiple protocols to function simultaneously on a single computer. Client software called a redirec-tor works closely with the operating 10
11 system of a client computer. When the user gives a command to the computer, the computer goes first to the client operating system. If that command doesn t apply to the client computer, the operating system gives the command to the redirector, which sends it out to the network. A designator is designed to keep track of which drive letter is associated with which network device. Server software plays a critical role on a computer network. A network server uses network operating system (NOS) software. NOS software manages and coordinates all users and their requests across the network. A directory service is a database stored on the network. It contains information about users and network devices. A directory service also keeps track of the resources on the network and a user s privileges to those resources. 11
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