Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective

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1 Optical Networks: A Practical Perspective Rajiv Ramaswami Tellabs, Inc. Kumar N. Sivarajan Indian Institute of Science 14 Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, Inc. San Francisco, California

2 Contents Foreword vii Preface xxi 1 Introduction to Optical Networks Telecommunications Networks First-Generation Optical Networks Multiplexing Techniques Second-Generation Optical Networks Services Transparency Competing Technologies WDM Architectures The Optical Layer OTDM Architectures System and Network Evolution 15 Summary 19 Further Reading 19 References 20 I Technology 23 2 Propagation of Signals in Optical Fiber 25 xi

3 xii CONTENTS 2.1 Light Propagation in Optical Fiber Geometrical Optics Approach Wave Theory Approach Loss and Bandwidth Chromatic Dispersion Chirped Gaussian Pulses System Limitations Controlling the Dispersion Profile Nonlinear Effects Self-Phase Modulation Cross-Phase Modulation Nonlinear Effects on Pulse Propagation * SPM-Induced Chirp for Gaussian Pulses Four-Wave Mixing Solitons Soliton Pulse Propagation * 75 Summary 76 Further Reading 77 Problems 78 References 80 3 Components Couplers Principle of Operation Conservation of Energy Isolators and Circulators Principle of Operation Multiplexers and Filters Gratings Bragg Gratings Fiber Gratings Fabry-Perot Filters Multilayer Dielectric Thin-Film Filters Mach-Zehnder Interferometers Arrayed Waveguide Grating Acousto-Optic Tunable Filter Optical Amplifiers Stimulated Emission Spontaneous Emission Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers 122

4 CONTENTS хш Praseodymium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers Semiconductor Optical Amplifiers Crosstalk in SOAs Transmitters Lasers Light-Emitting Diodes Detectors Photodetectors Front-End Amplifiers Switches Mechanical Switches Electro-Optic Switches Thermo-Optic Switches Semiconductor Optical Amplifier Switches Large Switches Wavelength Converters Optoelectronic Approach Optical Gating Cross-Gain Modulation Cross-Phase Modulation Wave Mixing 165 Summary 166 Further Reading 166 Problems 167 References Modulation and Demodulation Modulation Signal Formats Demodulation An Ideal Receiver A Practical Direction Detection Receiver Front-End Amplifier Noise APD Noise Optical Preamplifiers Bit Error Rates Subcarrier Modulation and Multiplexing Coherent Detection 192 Summary 195 Further Reading 195

5 xiv CONTENTS Problems 196 References Transmission System Engineering 203 v 5.1 System Model Power Penalty Transmitter Receiver Optical Amplifiers Gain Saturation Gain Equalization Amplifier Cascades Power Transients and Automatic Gain Control Optical Supervisory Channel Crosstalk Intrachannel Crosstalk Interchannel Crosstalk Crosstalk in Networks Bidirectional Systems Crosstalk Reduction Cascaded Filters Dispersion Chromatic Dispersion Penalty Single-Mode Fiber Types Dispersion Compensation Polarization-Mode Dispersion (PMD) Fiber Nonlinearities Stimulated Brillouin Scattering Stimulated Raman Scattering Four-Wave Mixing Self-/Cross-Phase Modulation Dispersion Management Wavelength Stabilization Dynamic Range Issues in Networks Overall Design Considerations Fiber Type Transmit Power and Amplifier Spacing Interchannel Spacing and Number of Wavelengths All-Optical Networks Wavelength Planning 252

6 CONTENTS XV Transparency 254 Summary 254 Further Reading 254 Problems 255 References 259 II Networks First-Generation Optical Networks SONET/SDH Multiplexing Elements of a SONET/SDH Infrastructure SONET/SDH Physical Layer Computer Interconnects ESCON Fiber Channel HIPPI Metropolitan-Area Networks FDDI ATM IP Layered Architecture SONET/SDH Layers Second-Generation Optical Network Layers 284 Summary 286 Further Reading 287 Problems 287 References Broadcast and Select Networks Topologies for Broadcast Networks Interconnected Stars Media-Access Control (MAC) Protocols Synchronization Slotted Aloha/Slotted Aloha DT-WDMA Scheduling Protocols Scheduling Deterministic Traffic Scalability and Traffic Classes 314

7 xvi CONTENTS 7.3 Testbeds Lambdanet NTT's Testbed Rainbow STARNET BBC Television Studio Testbed Lightning Supercomputer Supernet Testbed 322 Summary 322 Further Reading 323 Problems 323 References Wavelength Routing Networks The Optical Layer Node Designs Degree of Wavelength Conversion Multiple Fiber Networks Degree of Transparency Realizations Network Design and Operation Traffic Models and Performance Criteria Network Types: Static or Reconfigurable Optical Layer Cost Tradeoffs Routing and Wavelength Assignment Relationship to Graph Coloring Offline RWA: Maximum Load Model Online RWA in Rings: Maximum Load Model Online RWA: Statistical Model Architectural Variations 384 Summary 388 Further Reading 389 Problems 389 References Virtual Topology Design The Virtual Topology Design Problem Combined SONET/WDM Network Design An Integer Linear Programming Formulation Regular Virtual Topologies 411

8 CONTENTS xvii Shufflenets Implementation in Broadcast and Select Networks 415 Summary 418 Further Reading 418 Problems 418 References Control and Management Network Management Functions Configuration Management Equipment Management Connection Management Performance Management Fault Management Protection Concepts Ring Networks Mesh Networks Handling Node Failures Interworking Between Layers Optical Safety Open Fiber Control Protocol Systems with Optical Amplifiers Service Interface Data Communication Interface Control and Management Interface WDM Multivendor Interoperability 458 Summary 458 Further Reading 459 Problems 459 References Wavelength Routing Testbeds Africa ONE/Sea Me We AON NTT Ring MWTN ONTC Alcatel's WDM Ring MONET 476 Summary 477

9 xviii CONTENTS Further Reading 478 Problems 478 References Access Networks Network Architecture Overview Today's Access Networks Future Access Networks HFC FTTC Optical Access Network Architectures 489 Summary 497 Further Reading 497 Problems 498 References Deployment Considerations Upgrading Transmission Capacity The SDM Approach The TDM Approach The WDM Approach Trading SONET Against WDM Application Areas Interexchange Networks Undersea Networks Local-Exchange Networks Enterprise Links Equipment Design Requirements 510 Summary 511 Further Reading 511 Problems 511 References Photonic Packet Switching OTDM Multiplexing and Demultiplexing Bit Interleaving Packet Interleaving Optical AND Gates Synchronization 528

10 CONTENTS xix Tunable Delays Optical Phase Lock Loop Broadcast OTDM Networks Switch-Based Networks Functions of a Routing Node Deflection Routing Feed-Forward and Feedback Delay Lines OTDM Testbeds ATMOS BT Labs Testbeds Princeton University Testbed AON CORD TBONE 546 Summary 546 Further Reading 547 Problems 548 References 549 III Appendices 553 A Symbols and Parameters 555 В Decibel Units 559 С Nonlinear Polarization 561 D Random Processes 563 D.l Random Variables 563 D.l.l Gaussian Distribution 564 D.1.2 Maxwell Distribution 565 D.1.3 Poisson Distribution 565 D.2 Random Processes 566 D.2.1 Poisson Random Process 567 D.2.2 Gaussian Random Process 568 Further Reading 568 References 568 E Multilayer Thin-Film Filters 569 E.l Wave Propagation at Dielectric Interfaces 569

11 xx CONTENTS E.2 Filter Design 573 References 576 F Receiver Noise Statistics 577 El Shot Noise 579 F.2 Amplifier Noise 580 References 582 G Graph Theory 583 G.l Walks and Cycles 583 G.2 Planarity 583 G.3 Connectivity 585 Further Reading 585 References 585 H WDM Link MIB 587 Bibliography 589 Index 613

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