WIRELESS ACCESS PRINCIPLES OF AND LOCALIZATION. Wiley. Kaveh Pahlavan. Prashant Krishnamurthy. University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA

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1 PRINCIPLES OF WIRELESS ACCESS AND LOCALIZATION Kaveh Pahlavan Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, Massachusetts, USA Prashant Krishnamurthy University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA Wiley

2 Preface xv 1 Introduction Introduction Elements of Information Networks Evolution ofapplications, Devices, and Networks Information Network Infrastructures and Wireless Access Connection Between Wireless Access and Localization Standards Organizations for Information Networking Four Markets in the Evolution of Wireless Networking Standards Trends in Wireless Data Applications Evolution ofwireless Access to the PSTN Cordless Telephone Systems Cellular Telephone Networks Evolution of Wireless Access to the Internet Local Wireless Data Networks Wide Area Wireless Data Networks Evolution of Wireless Localization Technologies TOA-based Wireless Localization RSS-based Localization Structure of this Book Part I: Principles ofair-interference Design Part II: Principle of Network Infrastructure Design Part III: Wireless Local Access Part IV: Wide Area Wireless Access Part V: Wireless Localization 33 Part I PRINCIPLES OF AIR-INTERFERENCE DESIGN 2 Characteristics of the Wireless Medium Introduction Causes ofmultipath Propagation Effects of Multipath Propagation Applied Channel Models for Wireless Communication Applications 43

3 2.2 Modeling of Large-scale RSS, Path Loss, and Shadow Fading General Features oflarge-scale RSS Friis Equation and Path-Loss Modeling in Free Space Empirical Determination of Path Loss Gradient Shadow Fading and Fading Margin Popular Models for Path Loss and Shadow Fading Modeling of RSS Fluctuations and Doppler Spectrum Friis'Equation and Geometric Ray Tracing Modeling of Small-Scale Fading Modeling ofdoppler Spectrum Wideband Modeling of Multipath Characteristics Impulse Response, Multipath Intensity, and Bandwidth Multipath Spread, ISI, and Bandwidth Wideband Channel Models in Standardization Organizations Simulation of Channel Behavior Emerging Channel Models Wideband Channel Models for Geolocation SIMO and MIMO Channel Models 82 Appendix A2: What Is the Decibel? 84 3 Physical Layer Alternatives for Wireless Networks Introduction Physical Layer Basics: Data rate, Bandwidth, and Power Data Rate and Bandwidth Power and Error Rate Shannon-Hartley Bound on Achievable Data Rate Performance in Multipath Wireless Channels Effects of Flat Fading ISI Effects Due to Multipath Wireless Transmission Techniques Power Efficient Short Distance Baseband Transmission Bandwidth Efficient Carrier Modulated Transmission Multipath Resistant Techniques Flat Fading, Antenna Diversity, and MIMO Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum Transmissions FH-CDMA and OFDM Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Transmission DS-CDMA and M-ary Orthogonal Coding Comparison ofdsss, FHSS and OFDM Coding Techniques for Wireless Communications Block Codes Convolutional Codes Turbocodes and OtherAdvanced Codes Space-Time Coding Automatic Repeat Request Schemes Block Interleaving Scrambling Speech Coding 143

4 3.7 Cognitive Radio and Dynamic Spectrum Access 145 Appendix A Medium Access Methods Introduction Centralized Assigned-Access Schemes Frequency Division Multiple Access Time Division Multiple Access Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA Comparison ofcdma, TDMA and FDMA Performance ofassigned-access Methods Distributed Random Access for Data Oriented Networks Random Access Methods for Data Services Access methodsfor LANs Performance ofrandom Access Methods Integration of Voice and Data Traffic Access Methodsfor Integrated Services Data Integration in Voice-Oriented Networks Voice Integration into Data-Oriented Networks 202 Part II PRINCIPLES OF NETWORK INFRASTRUCTURE DESIGN 5 Deployment of Wireless Networks Introduction Wireless Network Architectures Classification of Wireless Networks Based on Topologies Classification of Wireless Networks Based on Coverage Interference in Wireless Networks Interference Range Probability ofinterference Empirical Results Deployment of Wireless LANs Cellular Topology, Cell Fundamentals, and Frequency Reuse The Cellular Concept Cellular Hierarchy Cell Fundamentals and Frequency Reuse Signal to Interference Ratio Calculation Capacity Expansion Techniques Architectural Methodsfor Capacity Expansion Channel Allocation Techniques and Capacity Expansion Migration to Digital Systems Network Planning for CDMA Systems Issues in CDMA Network Planning Migration from Legacy Systems Femtocells 270

5 X Contents 6 Wireless Network Operations Introduction Operations in Cellular Telephone Networks Operations in Wireless Local Area Networks Operations in Wireless Personal Area Networks Cell Search and Registration Mobility Management Location Management HandoffManagement Mobile IP and IMS Radio Resources and Power Management Adjusting Link Quality Power Control Power Saving Mechanisms in Wireless Networks Energy Efficient Designs Energy Efficient Software Approaches Wireless Network Security Introduction General Security Threats Cryptographic Protocols for Security Security in Wireless Local Networks Security Threats Security Protocols Security in Wireless Personal Networks Security Threats Security Protocols Security in Wide Area Wireless Networks Security Threats Security Protocols Miscellaneous Issues 340 Appendix A7: An Overview of Cryptography and Cryptographic Protocols 341 Part III WIRELESS LOCAL ACCESS 8 Wireless LANs Introduction Early Experiences Emergence of Unlicensed Bands Products, Bands, and Standards Shift in Marketing Strategy Wireless Local Area Networks and Standards WLAN Standards and Standards Activities Ethernet and IEEE Overview of IEEE802.il IEEE WLAN Operations Topology and Architecture The IEEE MAC Layer 373

6 8.3.3 The PHY Layer Capacity of Infrastructure WLANs Security Issues and Implementation in IEEE Low Power Sensor Networks Introduction Bluetooth Overall Architecture Protocol Stack Physical Layer MAC Mechanism Frame Formats Connection Management Security IEEE and ZigBee Overall Architecture Protocol Stack and Operation Physical Layer MAC Layer Frame Format Comparison of ZigBee with Bluetooth and WiFi IEEE Body Area Networks What is a BAN? Overall Architecture and Applications Channel Measurement and Modeling Physical and MAC Layer AAA 10 Gigabit Wireless Introduction UWB Networking at GHz Gigabit Wireless at 60 GHz UWB Communications at GHz Impulse Radio and Time Hopping Access Direct Sequence UWB Multi-Band OFDM Channel Models for UWB Communications Gigabit Wireless at 60 GHz Architecture and Application Scenarios Transmission and Medium Access Channel Models for 60 GHz mmwave Networks All Part IV WIDE AREA WIRELESS ACCESS 11 TDMA Cellular Systems Introduction What is TDMA Cellular? Original Services and Shortcomings Reference Architecture for a Cellular Network 482

7 11.3 Mechanisms to Support a Mobile Environment Registration Call Establishment Handoff Security Communication Protocols Layer I: Physical Layer Layer 11: Data Link Layer Layer III: Networking Layer Channel Models for Cellular Networks / Path Loss Modelsfor Cellular Networks Modelsfor Scattering Function of Cellular Networks Transmission Techniques in TDMA Cellular Evolution of TDMA for Internet Access Architectural and MAC Layer Changes Data Rate in TDMA Packet Switched Networks CDMA Cellular Systems Introduction Why CDMA? CDMA Based Cellular Systems Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Receiver Processing with Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum Channelization using Orthogonal Sequences Multipath Diversity with PN Sequences Communication Channels and Protocols in Example CDMA Systems The 2G CDMA System The 3G UMTS System Cell Search, Mobility, and Radio Resource Management in CDMA Cell Search Soft Handoff Power Control High Speed Packet Access OFDM and MIMO Cellular Systems Introduction Why OFDM? Robustness in Multipath Dispersion Flexible Allocation ofresources Challenges with OFDM Multiple Input Multiple Output Diversity Spatial Multiplexing Beamforming WiMax General Architecture of WiMax MAC Layer of WiMAX PHY Layer of WiMax 582

8 xiii 13.5 Long Term Evolution Architecture and Protocol Stack Downlink in LTE Uplink in LTE LTE Operational Aspects Miscellaneous LTE Advanced 591 Part V WIRELESS LOCALIZATION 14 Geolocation Systems Introduction What is Wireless Geolocation? Wireless Emergency Services Performance Measures for Geolocation Systems RF Location Sensing and Positioning Methodologies Generic Architecture Positioning Algorithms Positioning Standards for Cellular Telephone Systems Location Services Architecture for Cellular Systems Cellular Network Architecture Location Services Architecture Over the Air (Access Network) Communications for Location Services Signaling in the Fixed Infrastructure (Core Network) for Location Services Mobile Location Protocol Positioning in Ad Hoc and Sensor Networks Fundamentals of RF Localization Introduction Modeling of the Behavior of RF Sensors Behavior of RSS Sensors Behavior of TOA Sensors Models of the Behavior of DOA Performance Bounds for Ranging Fundamentals of Estimation Theory and CRLB RSS-hased Localization J TOA-hased Localization DOA-hased Localization Wireless Positioning Algorithms Relation between Ranging and Positioning RSS-based Pattern Recognition Algorithms TOA-based Least Square Algorithms Wireless Localization in Practice Introduction Emergence of Wi-Fi Localization Evolution of Wi-Fi Localization 655

9 xiv Contents Wi-Fi Localization: TOA versus RSS How does RSS-based Wi-Fi Localization Work? Comparison of Wi-Fi Localization Systems RTLS: Wi-Fi Localizationfor RFID Applications WPS: Software GPS Practical TOA Measurement Measurement of TOA using a Narrowband Carrier Phase Wideband TOA Measurement and Super-resolution Algorithm UWB TOA Measurement Localization in the Absence of DP Ranging Error in the Absence ofdp Effects of Bandwidth Localization using Multipath Diversity Cooperative Localization Using Spatial Diversity Challenges in Localization inside the Human Body Bounds on RSS-based Localization inside the Human Body Challenges in TOA-based RF Localization inside the Human Body Modeling of Wideband RF Propagation from inside the Human Body 681 References 687 Index 701