Communication Networks
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1 Communication Networks Chapter 3
2 Multiplexing
3 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required bandwidth of channel Each signal is modulated to a different carrier frequency (channel) To prevent interference, carrier frequencies (channels) separated so signals do not overlap (guard bands) e.g. broadcast radio (a useful spectrum for voice is 300 to 3400 Hz, and a bandwidth of 4 khz is enough as a guard Standard voice multiplexer is a 12X4 khz channels from 60 to 108 khz. Channel allocated even if no data
4 Frequency Division Multiplexing Diagram
5 FDM System
6 FDM of Three Voiceband Signals
7 Analog Carrier Systems AT&T (USA) Hierarchy of FDM schemes Group 12 voice channels (4kHz each) = 48kHz Range 60kHz to 108kHz Supergroup 60 channel FDM of 5 group signals on carriers between 420kHz and 612 khz Mastergroup 10 supergroups
8 Wavelength Division Multiplexing Multiple beams of light at different frequency Carried by optical fiber A form of FDM Each color of light (wavelength) carries separate data channel 1997 Bell Labs 100 beams Each at 10 Gbps Giving 1 terabit per second (Tbps) Commercial systems of 160 channels of 10 Gbps now available Lab systems (Alcatel) 256 channels at 39.8 Gbps each 10.1 Tbps Over 100km
9 WDM Operation Same general architecture as other FDM Number of sources generating laser beams at different frequencies Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission over single fiber Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths Typically tens of km apart Demux separates channels at the destination Mostly 1550nm wavelength range Was 200MHz per channel Now 50GHz
10 Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing DWDM No official or standard definition Implies more channels more closely spaced than WDM 200GHz or less
11 Synchronous Time Division Multiplexing Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of digital signal to be transmitted Multiple digital signals interleaved in time May be at bit level of blocks (6 inputs each 9.6 kbps can be carried by a single line capacity of 57.6 kbps) Time slots pre-assigned to sources and fixed Time slots allocated even if no data Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed amongst sources
12 Time Division Multiplexing
13 TDM System
14 TDM Link Control No headers and trailers Data link control protocols not needed Flow control Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed If one channel receiver can not receive data, the others must carry on The corresponding source must be quenched This leaves empty slots Error control Errors are detected and handled by individual channel systems
15 Data Link Control on TDM
16 Framing No flag or SYNC characters bracketing TDM frames Must provide synchronizing mechanism Added digit framing One control bit added to each TDM frame Looks like another channel - control channel Identifiable bit pattern used on control channel e.g. alternating unlikely on a data channel Can compare incoming bit patterns on each channel with sync pattern
17 Types of Communication Networks Traditional Traditional local area network (LAN) Traditional wide area network (WAN) Higher-speed High-speed local area network (LAN) Metropolitan area network (MAN) High-speed wide area network (WAN)
18 Speed and Distance of Communications Networks
19 Characteristics of WANs Covers large geographical areas Circuits provided by a common carrier Consists of interconnected switching nodes Traditional WANs provide modest capacity bps common Business subscribers using T-1 service Mbps common Higher-speed WANs use optical fiber and transmission technique known as asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) 10s and 100s of Mbps common
20 Characteristics of LANs Like WAN, LAN interconnects a variety of devices and provides a means for information exchange among them Traditional LANs Provide data rates of 1 to 20 Mbps High-speed LANS Provide data rates of 100 Mbps to 1 Gbps
21 Differences between LANs and WANs Scope of a LAN is smaller LAN interconnects devices within a single building or cluster of buildings LAN usually owned by organization that owns the attached devices For WANs, most of network assets are not owned by same organization Internal data rate of LAN is much greater
22 The Need for MANs Traditional point-to-point and switched network techniques used in WANs are inadequate for growing needs of organizations Need for high capacity and low costs over large area MAN provides: Service to customers in metropolitan areas Required capacity Lower cost and greater efficiency than equivalent service from telephone company
23 Switching Terms Switching Nodes: Intermediate switching device that moves data Not concerned with content of data Stations: End devices that wish to communicate Each station is connected to a switching node Communications Network: A collection of switching nodes
24 What is it all about? How do we move traffic from one part of the network to another? Connect end-systems to switches, and switches to each other Data arriving to an input port of a switch have to be moved to one or more of the output ports
25 Switched Network
26 Observations of Figure 3.3 Some nodes connect only to other nodes (e.g., 5 and 7) Some nodes connect to one or more stations Node-station links usually dedicated point-topoint links Node-node links usually multiplexed links Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) Time-division multiplexing (TDM) Not a direct link between every node pair
27 Techniques Used in Switched Networks Circuit switching Dedicated communications path between two stations E.g., public telephone network Packet switching Message is broken into a series of packets Each node determines next leg of transmission for each packet
28 Switching (a) Circuit switching. (b) Packet switching.
29 A generic switch
30 Phases of Circuit Switching Circuit establishment An end to end circuit is established through switching nodes Information Transfer Information transmitted through the network Data may be analog voice, digitized voice, or binary data Circuit disconnect Circuit is terminated Each node deallocates dedicated resources
31 Characteristics of Circuit Switching Can be inefficient Channel capacity dedicated for duration of connection Utilization not 100% Delay prior to signal transfer for establishment Once established, network is transparent to users Information transmitted at fixed data rate with only propagation delay
32 A circuit switch A switch that can handle N calls has N logical inputs and N logical outputs N up to 200,000 In practice, input trunks are multiplexed example: DS3 trunk carries 672 simultaneous calls Multiplexed trunks carry frames = set of samples Goal: extract samples from frame, and depending on position in frame, switch to output each incoming sample has to get to the right output line and the right slot in the output frame demultiplex, switch, multiplex
33 Components of Public Telecommunications Network Subscribers - devices that attach to the network; mostly telephones Subscriber line - link between subscriber and network Also called subscriber loop or local loop Exchanges - switching centers in the network A switching centers that support subscribers is an end office Trunks - branches between exchanges
34 How Packet Switching Works Data is transmitted in blocks, called packets Before sending, the message is broken into a series of packets Typical packet length is 1000 octets (bytes) Packets consists of a portion of data plus a packet header that includes control information At each node en route, packet is received, stored briefly and passed to the next node
35 Packet Switching
36 Packet Switching
37 Packet Switching Advantages Line efficiency is greater Many packets over time can dynamically share the same node to node link Packet-switching networks can carry out data-rate conversion Two stations with different data rates can exchange information Unlike circuit-switching networks that block calls when traffic is heavy, packet-switching still accepts packets, but with increased delivery delay Priorities can be used
38 Disadvantages of Packet Switching Each packet switching node introduces a delay Overall packet delay can vary substantially This is referred to as jitter Caused by differing packet sizes, routes taken and varying delay in the switches Each packet requires overhead information Includes destination and sequencing information Reduces communication capacity More processing required at each node
39 Packet Switching Networks - Datagram Each packet treated independently, without reference to previous packets Each node chooses next node on packet s path Packets don t necessarily follow same route and may arrive out of sequence Exit node restores packets to original order Responsibility of exit node or destination to detect loss of packet and how to recover
40 Packet Switching Networks Datagram Advantages: Call setup phase is avoided Because it s more primitive, it s more flexible Datagram delivery is more reliable
41 Packet Switching Networks Virtual Circuit Preplanned route established before packets sent All packets between source and destination follow this route Routing decision not required by nodes for each packet Emulates a circuit in a circuit switching network but is not a dedicated path Packets still buffered at each node and queued for output over a line
42 Packet Switching Networks Virtual Circuit Advantages: Packets arrive in original order Packets arrive correctly Packets transmitted more rapidly without routing decisions made at each node
43 Effect of Packet Size on Transmission
44 Effect of Packet Size on Transmission Breaking up packets decreases transmission time because transmission is allowed to overlap Figure 3.9a Entire message (40 octets) + header information (3 octets) sent at once Transmission time: 129 octet-times (An octet is a unit of digital information that consists of eight bits) Figure 3.9b Message broken into 2 packets (20 octets) + header (3 octets) Transmission time: 92 octet-times
45 Effect of Packet Size on Transmission Figure 3.9c Message broken into 5 packets (8 octets) + header (3 octets) Transmission time: 77 octet-times Figure 3.9d Making the packets too small, transmission time starts increases Each packet requires a fixed header; the more packets, the more headers
46 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) The word Asynchronous in ATM is in contrast to Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM) that was proposed earlier on, which was based on the SONET/SDH hierarchy. ATM was standardized by ITU-T (old CCITT) in 1988 as the transfer mode of B-ISDN It can carry a variety of different types of traffic, such as Voice Video Data At speeds varying from fractional T1 (1.544 Mbit/s line rate) to 2.4 Gbps
47 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) Also known as cell relay Operates at high data rates Resembles packet switching Involves transfer of data in discrete chunks, like packet switching Allows multiple logical connections to be multiplexed over a single physical interface Minimal error and flow control capabilities reduces overhead processing and size Fixed-size cells simplify processing at ATM nodes
48 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
49 ATM Terminology Virtual channel connection (VCC) Logical connection in ATM Basic unit of switching in ATM network Analogous to a virtual circuit in packet switching networks Exchanges variable-rate, full-duplex flow of fixed-size cells Virtual path connection (VPC) Bundle of VCCs that have the same end points
50 Advantages of Virtual Paths Simplified network architecture Increased network performance and reliability Reduced processing and short connection setup time Enhanced network services
51 Call Establishment
52 Virtual Channel Connection Uses Between end users Can carry end-to-end user data or control signaling between two users Between an end user and a network entity Used for user-to-network control signaling Between two network entities Used for network traffic management and routing functions
53 Virtual Path/Virtual Channel Characteristics Quality of service Specified by parameters such as cell loss ratio and cell delay variation Switched and semipermanent virtual channel connections Cell sequence integrity Traffic parameter negotiation and usage monitoring Virtual channel identifier restriction within a VPC
54 ATM Cell Header Format Generic flow control (GFC) 4 bits, used only in user-network interface Used to alleviate short-term overload conditions in network Virtual path identifier (VPI) 8 bits at the user-network interface, 12 bits at networknetwork interface Routing field Virtual channel identifier (VCI) 8 bits Used for routing to and from end user
55 ATM Cell Header Format Payload type (PT) 3 bits Indicates type of information in information field Cell loss priority (CLP) 1 bit Provides guidance to network in the event of congestion Header error control (HEC) 8 bit Error code
56 ATM Service Categories Real-time service Constant bit rate (CBR) Real-time variable bit rate (rt-vbr) Non-real-time service Non-real-time variable bit rate (nrt-vbr) Available bit rate (ABR) Unspecified bit rate (UBR)
57 Examples of CBR Applications Videoconferencing Interactive audio (e.g., telephony) Audio/video distribution (e.g., television, distance learning, pay-perview) Audio/video retrieval (e.g., video-ondemand, audio library)
58 Examples of UBR applications Text/data/image transfer, messaging, distribution, retrieval Remote terminal (e.g., telecommuting)
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