CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

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1 39 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter gives a brief summary of the MANET routing protocol types and their details. 2.1 ROUTING IN AD-HOC NETWORKS Routing is the act of moving information from source to a destination across the network. Along the way, at least one intermediate node typically is encountered. The following are the main activities involved in the data transmission through the network: Determination of optimal routes between source and destination pair Delivery of messages to the correct destination. Routing protocols are used by intermediate systems to build tables used in determining path selection for data transmission. The routing protocol also specifies how routers in a network share information with each other and report changes. The routing protocol also enables a network to make dynamic adjustments to its conditions; so routing decisions do not have to be predetermined and static. Routing protocols use several metrics such as number of hops to calculate the optimum path for routing the packets to its destination. The

2 40 process of route selection is that, routing algorithms find out and maintain routing tables, which contains the total route information for the packets. The information of route varies from one routing algorithm to another Properties of Ad-Hoc Routing Protocols The properties that are desirable in Ad-Hoc routing protocols are: i) Distributed Operation: The protocol should be distributed. It should not be dependent on a centralized controlling node. This is the case even for stationary networks. The dissimilarity is that the nodes in an ad-hoc network can enter or leave the network very easily and because of mobility the network can be partitioned. ii) Loop Free: The routes established by the routing protocol should be loop free in order to improve the overall network performance. The misuse of resources such as bandwidth and CPU consumption are avoided. iii) Unidirectional Link Support: The radio environment can cause the formation of unidirectional links. Utilization of these links and not only the bi-directional links improves the routing protocol performance.

3 41 iv) Demand Based Operation: The routing protocols should be reactive in order to minimize the control overhead in the network and improve the better utilization of network utilization. v) Security: Because of the vulnerabilities in the physical security, ad hoc routing protocols are exposed to many kind of attacks. Maintaining link layer security is in practice harder with ad hoc networks than with fixed networks. Sufficient routing protocols security is desirable. Sufficient within this context covers prohibiting disruption or modification of protocol operation. vi) "Sleep" period operation: Since nodes in ad hoc networks may have energy constraints or because of some other need, nodes may want to stop sending and/or receiving data for arbitrary time periods. A routing protocol should be able handle such sleep periods without overly unfavorable consequences. vii) Unidirectional link support: Many routing algorithms require bidirectional links to be capable of functioning. Unidirectional links are however more general in radio networks. That is why it s favorable that ad hoc routing protocols can handle a situation where two (oppositely directed) unidirectional links form the only bidirectional connection between the nodes. Even though such a situation will probably emerge rarely.

4 Performance Metrics There are several quantitative metrics that might be used to analyze the performance of a routing protocol. The RFC 2501 defines four measures. Basically they can be used to analyze the performance of any routing protocol. The following measurements are defined in RFC (i) End-to-End data throughput and delay This metric involves analyzing the efficiency of data routing. Statistical measures (e.g. means, variances and distributions) are essential. These are used to analyze the effectiveness of a routing policy as a measure from the external perspective (the perspective of other policies that utilize routing). (ii) Route acquisition time This measure the time required to establish routes. It is an end-toend measurement. Route acquisition time is concerned especially with ondemand routing approaches. (iii) Percentage Out-of-Order Delivery This one measures connectionless routing performance. It s an interesting metric especially from transportation layer s point of view (e.g. TCP) since Transportation layer prefers mostly in-order delivery.

5 43 (iv) Efficiency This refers to internal effectiveness of a routing policy. Thus, to achieve a certain externally evaluated data routing efficiency, two policies may consume different amounts of overhead since their internal efficiencies differ. If control and data traffic use the same transmission channel, then excessive control traffic will probably affect on the internal efficiency of a policy. When analyzing the performance of ad hoc routing protocols, some parameters of the networking context should be considered carefully. The RFC 2501 defines the following ones: 1. Network size: This is simply measured by the number of nodes in a network. 2. Network connectivity: This refers to the average number of neighbors of a node. 3. Topological rate of change: The rate of change of network s topology. 4. Link capacity: The effective speed of a link which is measured with bits per second. 5. Fraction of unidirectional links: This must be concerned when evaluating, how the number of unidirectional links present in a network effect on protocol s performance.

6 44 6. Traffic patterns: This is concerned when evaluating how well a protocol can adapt to non-uniform or bursty traffic patterns. 7. Mobility: This is concerned when assessing how relevant temporal or spatial topological correlation is to the performance of a routing protocol. 8. Fraction and frequency of sleeping nodes: How well a protocol can handle situations where sleeping nodes are present. 2.2 CLASSIFICATION OF MANET ROUTING PROTOCOLS Routing protocols between any pair of nodes within MANET can be thorny because the nodes can move randomly and can also join or leave the network. This means that an optimal route at a certain time may not work seconds later. The following picture divulges the categories that existing ad-hoc network routing protocols fall into [45, 46]:

7 45 MANET ROUTING PROTOCOLS PROACTIVE / TABLE DRIVEN PROTOCOLS REACTIVE / ON- DEMAND PROTOCOLS HYBRID ROUTING PROTOCOLS DSDV, WRP, CGSR, OLSR AODV, DSR, TORA, CBRP ZRP, ZHLS Figure 2.1 Categories of Ad Hoc Network Routing Protocols (i) Proactive or Table Driven Protocols, work out routes in the background independent of traffic demands. Each node uses routing information to store the location information of other nodes in the network and this information is then used to move data among different nodes in the network. This type of protocol is slow to converge and may be prone to routing loops. These protocols keep a constant overview of the network and this can be a disadvantage as they may react to change in the network topology even if no traffic is affected by the topology modification which could create unnecessary overhead. Even in a network with little data traffic, Table Driven Protocols will use limited resources such as power and link bandwidth therefore they might not be considered an effective routing solution for Ad-

8 46 hoc Networks. DSDV, Fisheye State Routing are the example of a Table Driven Protocol [49]. (ii) Reactive or On Demand Routing Protocols, establish routes between nodes only when they are required to route data packets. There is no updating of every possible route in the network instead it focuses on routes that are being used or being set up. When a route is required by a source node to a destination for which it does not have route information, it starts a route discovery process which goes from one node to the other until it arrives at the destination or a node in-between has a route to the destination. On Demand protocols are generally considered efficient when the route discovery is less frequent than the data transfer because the network traffic caused by the route discovery step is low compared to the total communication bandwidth. This makes On Demand Protocols more suited to large networks with light traffic and low mobility. An example of an On Demand Protocol is Dynamic Source Routing [1]. (iii) Hybrid Routing Protocols, combine Table Based Routing Protocols with On Demand Routing Protocols. They use distance-vectors for more precise metrics to establish the best paths to destination networks, and report routing information only when there is a change in the topology of the network. Each node in the network has its own routing zone, the size of which is defined by a zone radius, which is defined by a metric such as the number of hops. Each node keeps a record of routing information for its own zone. Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) is an example of a Hybrid routing protocol [14].

9 47 The following table depicts the dissimilarities between the major two categories of the routing protocols proactive and reactive. Table 2.1 Dissimilarities between the Proactive and Reactive Routing Protocols PROACTIVE Attempt to maintain consistent, up-to REACTIVE A route is built only when required. date routing information from each node to every other node in the network. Constant propagation of routing No periodic updates. Control information periodically even when topology change does not occur. Incurs substantial traffic and power information is not propagated unless there is a change in the topology Does not incur substantial traffic and consumption, which is generally Power consumption compared to scarce in mobile computers First packet latency is less when compared with on-demand protocols Table Driven routing protocols. First-packet latency is more when compared with table-driven protocols because a route need to be built A route to every other node in ad-hoc Not available. network is always available

10 AD-HOC PROACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS A REVIEW given in this section. The brief descriptions about several proactive routing protocols are These protocols are the extensions of the wired network routing protocols. They maintain the global topology information in the form of tables at every node. These tables are updated frequently in order to maintain consistent and accurate network state information. The Destination Sequence Distance Vector routing (DSDV), Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP), Clusterhead Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR), Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) and Source Tree Adaptive Routing (STAR) are some of the prominent protocols that belong to this category Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV) The Destination Sequenced Distance Vector Routing (DSDV) algorithm is one of the first protocols for an ad hoc network which is proactive in nature and is based on the Distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm with certain enhancements. This DSDV protocol is proposed by Perkins and Bhagwat [41]. In this model every mobile node maintains a table that contains the shortest distance and the first node on the shortest path to every other node in the network and the sequence number assigned by the destination. The tables are updated with increasing sequence number of tags to prevent loops, to counter the count-to-infinity problem and for faster convergence. Routes to all possible destinations are always readily available at every node. The periodical

11 49 exchange of tables between neighbour nodes at regular intervals keeps an upto-date aspect of the network topology. The tables are also forwarded if a node observes a significant change in local topology. There are two types of table updations: incremental updates and full dumps. An incremental update takes a single Network Data Packet Unit (NDPU), while a full dump may take multiple NDPUs. Incremental updates are used when a node does not observe significant changes in local topology. If two routes have the same sequence number then the route which holds the best metric (i.e. Shortest Hop Distance) is used. Based on the recorded previous history, the nodes calculate the settling time of routes. The nodes delay the transmission of a routing update by settling time so as to avoid the updates that would occur if a better route were found in future Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) The Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) is an another proactive distance vector protocol [36] similar to DSDV, which is also inherits the properties of the Distributed Bellman-Ford algorithm. In contrast to DSDV which maintains only one topology table, WRP maintains several tables such as Distance Table (DT), Routing Table (RT), Link-Cost Table (LCT) and a Message Retransmission List (MRL) for updated accurate information. The Distance Table (DT) of a node x contains the distance of each destination node y via each neighbour z of x. It also contains the downstream neighbour of z through which this path is recognized.

12 50 The Routing Table (RT) of node x contains the distance of each destination node y from node x, the predecessor and the successor of node x on this path. It also contains a tag to identify if the entry is a simple path, a loop or invalid. Loops can be detected by storing predecessor and successor in the table. The Link-Cost Table (LCT) contains the cost of the link to each neighbour of the node and the number of timeouts since an error-free message was received from that neighbour. The Message Retransmission List (MRL) holds the information to let a node know which of its neighbours has not acknowledged its update message and to retransmit the update message to that neighbour. Nodes in the network periodically exchange routing tables with their neighbours using update messages as well as on link changes. The nodes present on the response list for the update message (formed using the MRL) are required to acknowledge the receipt of the update message. If there is no change in the routing table since last update, the node will send an idle Hello message to ensure connectivity. Upon receiving an update message, the node modifies its distance table and looks for better paths using the new information. Information is sent back to the original nodes about any new paths found so that their tables can be updated. The routing table is also updated if the new path is better than the existing path.

13 Cluster-head Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR) The Cluster-head Gateway Switch Routing (CGSR) is a proactive routing algorithm [12] that uses the DSDV Routing algorithm as basis. In CGSR, the mobile nodes are amassed into clusters and a clusterhead is elected. All nodes that are in the transmission range of the cluster-head belong to its cluster. A gateway node is a node that is in the transmission range of two or more cluster-heads. In a dynamic network cluster head scheme can cause performance degradation due to frequent cluster-head elections, so CGSR uses a Least Cluster Change (LCC) algorithm. In LCC, cluster-head change occurs only if a change in network causes two cluster-heads to come into one cluster or one of the nodes moves out of the range of all the clusterheads. The route establishment process of the CGSR is as follows: If a node wants to transmit data, first it transmits the packet to its cluster-head. From this cluster-head, the packet is sent to the gateway node that connects this cluster-head and the next cluster-head along the route to the destination. The gateway sends it to that cluster-head and so on till the destination cluster-head is reached in this way. The destination cluster-head then transmits the packet to the destination.

14 Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR) The Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR) is an IP routing protocol optimized for mobile ad hoc networks, which can also be used on other wireless ad hoc networks. OLSR is a proactive link-state routing protocol, which uses hello and topology control (TC) messages to discover and then disseminate link state information throughout the mobile ad hoc network. Individual nodes use this topology information to compute next hop destinations for all nodes in the network using shortest hop forwarding paths [17]. (A) Features specific to OLSR Link-state routing protocols such as Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) and IS-IS elect a designated router on every link to perform flooding of topology information. In wireless ad hoc networks, there is different notion of a link, packets can and do go out the same interface; hence, a different approach is needed in order to optimize the flooding process. Using Hello messages the OLSR protocol at each node discovers 2-hop neighbor information and performs a distributed election of a set of multipoint relays (MPRs). Nodes select MPRs such that there exists a path to each of its 2-hop neighbors via a node selected as an MPR. These MPR nodes then source and forward TC messages that contain the MPR selectors. This functioning of MPRs makes OLSR unique from other link state routing protocols in a few different ways: The forwarding path for TC messages is not shared among all nodes but varies depending on the source, only a subset of nodes source link

15 53 state information, not all links of a node are advertised but only those that represent MPR selections. Since link-state routing requires the topology database to be synchronized across the network, OSPF and IS-IS perform topology flooding using a reliable algorithm. Such an algorithm is very difficult to design for ad hoc wireless networks, so OLSR doesn't bother with reliability; it simply floods topology data often enough to make sure that the database does not remain unsynchronized for extended periods of time. (B) Benefits Being a proactive protocol, routes to all destinations within the network are known and maintained before use. Having the routes available within the standard routing table can be useful for some systems and network applications as there is no route discovery delay associated with finding a new route. The routing overhead generated, while generally greater than that of a reactive protocol, does not increase with the number of routes being created. Default and network routes can be injected into the system by HNA messages allowing for connection to the internet or other networks within the OLSR MANET cloud. Network routes are something reactive protocols do not currently execute well. Timeout values and validity information is contained within the messages conveying information allowing for differing timer values to be used at differing nodes.

16 AD-HOC REACTIVE ROUTING PROTOCOLS A REVIEW Reactive or on demand routing protocols take an indolent approach to routing. In contrast to table-driven routing protocols all up-to-date routes are not maintained at every node, instead the routes are created as and when required. When a source wants to send to a destination, it invokes the route discovery mechanisms to find the path to the destination. The route remains valid till the destination is reachable or until the route is no longer needed. In this section several on-demand routing protocols such as The Ad hoc Ondemand Distance Vector (AODV), Dynamic Source Routing (DSR), Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) and Cluster Based Routing Protocol (CBRP) are discussed Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) The Ad hoc On-demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol is an on demand routing protocol described by Perkins and Royer [42] builds on the DSDV algorithm. (A) Path Discovery The Path Discovery process is initiated whenever a source node needs to communicate with another node for which it has no routing information in its table. Every node maintains two separate counters: a node sequence number and a broadcast id. The source node initiates path discovery by broadcasting a route request (RREQ) packet to its neighbours(figure 2.2). The RREQ contains the following fields: < source_ addr, source_ sequence #, broadcast_id, dest_addr,

17 55 dest_sequence #, hop_cnt> The pair < source_ addr, broadcast_id> uniquely identifies a RREQ. broadcast_ id is incremented when-ever the source issues a new RREQ. Each neighbour either satisfies the RREQ by sending a route reply (RREP) back to the source, re-broadcasts the RREQ to its own neighbors after increasing the hop-cnt. A node may receive multiple copies of the same route broadcast packet from various neighbours. When an intermediate node receives a RREQ, if it has already received a RREQ with the same broadcast id and source address, it drops the redundant RREQ and does not rebroadcast it. If a node cannot satisfy the RREQ, it keeps track of the following information in order to implement the reverse path setup, as well as the forward path setup that will accompany the transmission of the eventual RREP: Destination IP address Source IP address Broadcast_id Expiration time for reverse path route entry Source node s sequence number. As the RREQ travels from a source to various destinations, it automatically sets up the reverse path from all nodes back to the source. To set up a reverse path, a node records the address of the neighbor from which it received the first copy of the RREQ. These reverse path route entries are maintained for at least enough time for the RREQ to traverse the network and produce a reply to the sender.

18 56 c a e S Source D Destination b d Figure 2.2 Route Request (RREQ) Message Propagation in AODV (B) Forward Path Setup Eventually, a RREQ will arrive at a node (possibly the destination itself) that possesses a current route to the destination. The receiving node first checks that the RREQ was received over a bi-directional link. If an intermediate node has a route entry for the desired destination, it determines whether the route is current by comparing the destination sequence number in its own route entry to the destination sequence number in the RREQ. If the RREQ s sequence number for the destination is greater than that recorded by the intermediate node, the intermediate node must not use its recorded route to respond to the RREQ. Instead, the intermediate node rebroadcasts the RREQ. The intermediate node can reply only when it has a route with a sequence number that is greater than or equal to that contained in the RREQ. If it does have a current route to the destination, and if the RREQ has not been processed previously, the node then unicasts a route reply packet (RREP) back

19 57 to its neighbor from which it received the RREQ (Figure 2.3). A RREP contains the following information: < source_addr, dest_addr, dest_sequence_#, hop_cnt, lifetime > By the time a broadcast packet arrives at a node that can supply a route to the destination, a reverse path has been established to the source of the RREQ.As the RREP travels back to the source, each node along the path sets up a forward pointer to the node from which the RREP came, updates its timeout information for route entries to the source and destination, and records the latest destination sequence number for the requested destination. Nodes that are not along the path determined by the RREP will timeout after ACTIVE_ ROUTE_TIMEOUT (3000 msec ) and will delete the reverse pointers. c a e S Source D Destination b d Figure 2.3 Route Reply (RREP) Message Sent Back to Source in AODV A node receiving an RREP propagates the first RREP for a given source node towards that source. If it receives further RREPs, it updates its

20 58 routing information and propagates the RREP only if the RREP contains either a greater destination sequence number than the previous RREP, or the same destination sequence number with a smaller hop count. It suppresses all other RREPs it receives. This decreases the number of RREPs propagating towards the source while also ensuring the most up-to-date and quickest routing information. The source node can begin data transmission as soon as the first RREP is received, and can later update its routing information if it learns of a better route. (C) Route Table Management In addition to the source and destination sequence numbers, other useful information is also stored in the route table entries, and is called the soft-state associated with the entry. Associated with reverse path routing entries is a timer, called the route request expiration timer. The purpose of this timer is to purge reverse path routing entries from those nodes that do not lie on the path from the source to the destination. The expiration time depends upon the size of the ad-hoc network. Another important parameter associated with routing entries is the route caching timeout, or the time after which the route is considered to be invalid. In each routing table entry, the address of active neighbors through which packets for the given destination are received is also maintained. A neighbour is considered active for that destination, if it originates or relays at least one packet for that destination within the most recent active timeout period. This information is maintained so that all active source nodes can be notified when a link along a path to the destination breaks. A route entry is

21 59 considered active if it is in use by any active neighbours. The path from a source to a destination, which is followed by packets along active route entries, is called an active path. Note that, as with DSDV, all routes in the route table are tagged with destination sequence numbers, which guarantee that no routing loops can form, even under extreme conditions of out-of-order packet delivery and high node mobility. A mobile node maintains a route table entry for each destination of interest. Each route table entry contains the following information: Destination Next Hop Number of hops (metric) Sequence number for the destination Active neighbors for this route Expiration time for the route table entry Each time a route entry is used to transmit data from a source toward a destination, the timeout for the entry is reset to the current time plus active route timeout. If a new route is offered to a mobile node, the mobile node compares the destination sequence number of the new route to the destination sequence number for the current route. The route with the greater sequence number is chosen. If the sequence numbers are the same, then the new route is selected only if it has a smaller metric (fewer number of hops) to the destination.

22 60 (D) Path Maintenance Movement of nodes not lying along an active path does not affect the routing to that path s destination. If the source node moves during an active session, it can reinitiate the route discovery procedure to establish a new route to the destination. When either the destination or some intermediate node moves, a special RREP is sent to the affected source nodes. Periodic hello messages can be used to ensure symmetric links, as well as to detect link failures. Alternatively, and with far less latency, such failures could be detected by using link-layer acknowledgments (LLACKS). A link failure is also indicated if attempts to forward a packet to the next hop fail. Once the next hop becomes unreachable, the node upstream of the break propagates an unsolicited RREP with a fresh sequence number (i.e., a sequence number that is one greater than the previously known sequence number) and hop count of to all active upstream neighbours. Those nodes subsequently relay that message to their active neighbors and so on. This process continues until all active source nodes are notified, it terminates because AODV maintains only loop-free routes and there are only a finite number of nodes in the ad-hoc network. Upon receiving notification of a broken link, source nodes can restart the discovery process if they still require a route to the destination. To determine whether a route is still needed, a node may check whether the route has been used recently, as well as inspect upper level protocol control blocks

23 61 to see whether connections remain open using the indicated destination. If the source node (or any other node along the previous route) decides it would like to rebuild the route to the destination, it sends out an RREQ with a destination sequence number of one greater than the previously known sequence number, to ensure that it builds a new, viable route, and that no nodes reply if they still regard the previous route as valid. (E) Local Connectivity Management Nodes learn of their neighbors in one of two ways. Whenever a node receives a broadcast from a neighbour, it updates its local connectivity information to ensure that it includes this neighbour. In the event that a node has not sent any packets to all of its active downstream neighbors within hello interval, it broadcasts to its neighbors a hello message (a special unsolicited RREP) containing its identity and sequence number. The node s sequence number is not changed for hello message transmissions. This hello message is prevented from being rebroadcast outside the neighborhood of the node because it contains a time to live (TTL) value of 1. Neighbors that receive this packet update their local connectivity information to the node. Receiving a broadcast or a hello from a new neighbour, or failing to receive allowed_hello_loss consecutive hello messages from a node previously in the neighborhood, is an indication that the local connectivity has changed. Failing to receive hello messages from inactive neighbours does not trigger any protocol action. If hello messages are not received from the next hop along an active path, the active neighbors using that next hop are sent notification of link failure. The optimal value for allowed_hello_loss is determined as two.

24 62 The local connectivity management with hello messages can also be used to ensure that only nodes with bidirectional connectivity are considered to be neighbours. For this purpose, each hello sent by a node lists the nodes from which it has heard. Each node checks to make sure that it uses only routes to neighbors that have heard the node s hello message. To save local bandwidth, such checking should be performed only if explicitly configured into the nodes. (F) Characteristics of AODV : Unicast, Broadcast and Multicast Communication On demand route establishment with small delay Multicast trees connecting group members maintained for lifetime of multicast group Link breakages in active routes efficiently repaired (G) All roots are loop free through use of sequence numbers Use of sequence numbers to track accuracy of information Only keep track of next hop for a route instead of the entire route Use of periodic HELLO messages to track neighbours Advantages of AODV The main advantage of this protocol is having routes established on demand and that destination sequence numbers are applied to find the latest route to the destination. The connection setup delay is lower

25 63 The HELLO messages supporting the route maintenance are range limited, so they do not cause unnecessary overhead in the network (H) Disadvantages of AODV In AODV, intermediate nodes can lead to inconsistent routes if the source sequence number is very old and the intermediate nodes have a higher but not the latest destination sequence number, thereby having stale entries. Multiple Route Reply packets in response to a single Route Request packet can lead to heavy control overhead. Another disadvantage of AODV is unnecessary bandwidth consumption due to periodic beaconing Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) The Dynamic Source Routing Protocol [19]is another on demand routing protocol for MANET. DSR is a source-routed protocol in which each node maintains route caches containing the source routes that it is aware of. The node updates entries in the route cache as and when it learns about new routes. The DSR protocol is composed of two mechanisms that work together to allow the discovery and maintenance of source routes in the ad hoc network: Route Discovery is the mechanism by which a node S wishing to send a packet to a destination node D obtains a source route to D.

26 64 Route Discovery is used only when S attempts to send a packet to D and does not already know a route to D. Route Maintenance is the mechanism by which node S is able to detect, while using a source route to D, if the network topology has changed such that it can no longer use its route to D because a link along the route no longer works. When Route Maintenance indicates a source route is broken, S can attempt to use any other route it happens to know to D, or can invoke Route Discovery again to find a new route. Route Maintenance is used only when S is actually sending packets to D. Route Discovery and Route Maintenance each operate entirely on demand. In particular, unlike other protocols, DSR requires no periodic packets of any kind at any level within the network. For example, DSR does not use any periodic routing advertisement, link status sensing, or neighbor detection packets, and does not rely on these functions from any underlying protocols in the network. This entirely on-demand behavior and lack of periodic activity allows the number of overhead packets caused by DSR to scale all the way down to zero, when all nodes are approximately stationary with respect to each other and all routes needed for current communication have already been discovered. As nodes begin to move more or as communication patterns change, the routing packet overhead of DSR automatically scales to only that needed to track the routes currently in use. In response to a single Route Discovery (as well as through routing information from other packets overheard), a node may learn and cache

27 65 multiple routes to any destination. This allows the reaction to routing changes to be much more rapid, since a node with multiple routes to a destination can try another cached route if the one it has been using should fail. This caching of multiple routes also avoids the overhead of needing to perform a new Route Discovery each time a route in use breaks. The operation of Route Discovery and Route Maintenance in DSR are designed to allow uni-directional links and asymmetric routes to be easily supported. In particular, in wireless networks, it is possible that a link between two nodes may not work equally well in both directions, due to differing antenna or propagation patterns or sources of interference. DSR allows such uni-directional links to be used when necessary, improving overall performance and network connectivity in the system. DSR also supports internetworking between different types of wireless networks, allowing a source route to be composed of hops over a combination of any types of networks available. For example, some nodes in the ad hoc network may have only short-range radios, while other nodes have both short-range and long-range radios; the combination of these nodes together can be considered by DSR as a single ad hoc network. In addition, the routing of DSR has been integrated into standard Internet routing, where a gateway node connected to the Internet also participates in the ad hoc network routing protocols; and has been integrated into Mobile IP routing, where such a gateway node also serves the role of a Mobile IP foreign agent [19].

28 66 (A) Basic DSR Route Discovery When some node S originates a new packet destined to some other node D, it places in the header of the packet a source route giving the sequence of hops that the packet should follow on its way to D. Normally, S will obtain a suitable source route by searching its Route Cache of routes previously learned, but if no route is found in its cache, it will initiate the Route Discovery protocol to dynamically find a new route to D. In this case, S is called as the initiator and D as the target of the Route Discovery. For example, Figure 2.4 illustrates an example Route Discovery, in which a node A is attempting to discover a route to node E. To initiate the Route Discovery, A transmits a ROUTE REQUEST message as a single local broadcast packet, which is received by (approximately) all nodes currently within wireless transmission range of A. Each ROUTE REQUEST message identifies the initiator and target of the Route Discovery, and also contains a unique request id, determined by the initiator of the REQUEST. Each ROUTE REQUEST also contains a record listing the address of each intermediate node through which this particular copy of the ROUTE REQUEST message has been forwarded. This route record is initialized to an empty list by the initiator of the Route Discovery. A A B A,B C A,B,C D A,B,C,D id=2 id=2 id=2 id=2 E Figure 2.4: Route Discovery in DSR

29 67 When another node receives a ROUTE REQUEST, if it is the target of the Route Discovery, it returns a ROUTE REPLY message to the initiator of the Route Discovery, giving a copy of the accumulated route record from the ROUTE REQUEST; when the initiator receives this ROUTE REPLY, it caches this route in its Route Cache for use in sending subsequent packets to this destination. Otherwise, if this node receiving the ROUTE REQUEST has recently seen another ROUTE REQUEST message from this initiator bearing this same request id, or if it finds that its own address is already listed in the route record in the ROUTE REQUEST message, it discards the REQUEST. Otherwise, this node appends its own address to the route record in the ROUTE REQUEST message and propagates it by transmitting it as a local broadcast packet (with the same request id). In returning the ROUTE REPLY to the initiator of the Route Discovery, such as node E replying back to A in Figure 2.4, node E will typically examine its own Route Cache for a route back to A, and if found, will use it for the source route for delivery of the packet containing the ROUTE REPLY. Otherwise, E may perform its own Route Discovery for target node A, but to avoid possible infinite recursion of Route Discoveries, it must piggyback this ROUTE REPLY on its own ROUTE REQUEST message for A. It is also possible to piggyback other small data packets, such as a TCP SYN packet, on a ROUTE REQUEST using this same mechanism. Node E could also simply reverse the sequence of hops in the route record that it trying to send in the ROUTE REPLY, and use this as the source route on the packet carrying the ROUTE REPLY itself.

30 68 For MAC protocols such as IEEE that require a bidirectional frame exchange as part of the MAC protocol, this route reversal is preferred as it avoids the overhead of a possible second Route Discovery, and it tests the discovered route to ensure it is bi-directional before the Route Discovery initiator begins using the route. However, this technique will prevent the discovery of routes using uni-directional links. In wireless environments where the use of uni-directional links is permitted, such routes may in some cases be more efficient than those with only bi-directional links, or they may be the only way to achieve connectivity to the target node. When initiating a Route Discovery, the sending node saves a copy of the original packet in a local buffer called the Send Buffer. The Send Buffer contains a copy of each packet that cannot be transmitted by this node because it does not yet have a source route to the packet s destination. Each packet in the Send Buffer is stamped with the time that it was placed into the Buffer and is discarded after residing in the Send Buffer for some timeout period; if necessary for preventing the Send Buffer from overflowing, a FIFO or other replacement strategy can also be used to evict packets before they expire. While a packet remains in the Send Buffer, the node should occasionally initiate a new Route Discovery for the packet s destination address. However, the node must limit the rate at which such new Route Discoveries for the same address are initiated, since it is possible that the destination node is not currently reachable. In particular, due to the limited wireless transmission range and the movement of the nodes in the network, the network may at times become partitioned, meaning that there is currently no sequence of nodes through which a packet could be forwarded to reach the

31 69 destination. Depending on the movement pattern and the density of nodes in the network, such network partitions may be rare or may be common. If a new Route Discovery was initiated for each packet sent by a node in such a situation, a large number of unproductive ROUTE REQUEST packets would be propagated throughout the subset of the ad hoc network. In order to reduce the overhead from such Route Discoveries, the exponential back-off is used to limit the rate at which new Route Discoveries may be initiated by any node for the same target. If the node attempts to send additional data packets to this same node more frequently than this limit, the subsequent packets should be buffered in the Send Buffer until a ROUTE REPLY is received, but the node must not initiate a new Route Discovery until the minimum allowable interval between new Route Discoveries for this target has been reached. This limitation on the maximum rate of Route Discoveries for the same target is similar to the mechanism required by Internet nodes to limit the rate at which ARP REQUESTs are sent for any single target IP address. (B) Basic DSR Route Maintenance When originating or forwarding a packet using a source route, each node transmitting the packet is responsible for confirming that the packet has been received by the next hop along the source route; the packet is

32 70 retransmitted (up to a maximum number of attempts) until this confirmation of receipt is received. A B C D E Figure 2.5: Route Maintenance in DSR From the above figure 2.5, Node C is unable to forward a packet from A to E over its link to next hop D reachable from this node. For example, in the situation illustrated in figure 2.5, node A has originated a packet for E using a source route through intermediate nodes B, C, and D. In this case, node A is responsible for receipt of the packet at B, node B is responsible for receipt at C, node C is responsible for receipt at D, and node D is responsible for receipt finally at the destination E. This confirmation of receipt in many cases may be provided at no cost to DSR, either as an existing standard part of the MAC protocol in use (such as the link-level acknowledgement frame defined by IEEE ), or by a passive acknowledgement (in which, for example, B confirms receipt at C by overhearing C transmit the packet to forward it on to D). If neither of these confirmation mechanisms are available, the node transmitting the packet may set a bit in the packet s header to request a DSR-specific software acknowledgement be returned by the next hop; this software acknowledgement will normally be transmitted directly to the sending node, but if the link between these two nodes is uni-directional, this software acknowledgement may travel over a different, multi-hop path.

33 71 If the packet is retransmitted by some hop the maximum number of times and no receipt confirmation is received, this node returns a ROUTE ERROR message to the original sender of the packet, identifying the link over which the packet could not be forwarded. For example, in Figure 2.5, if C is unable to deliver the packet to the next hop D, then C returns a ROUTE ERROR to A, stating that the link from C to D is currently broken. Node A then removes this broken link from its cache; any retransmission of the original packet is a function for upper layer protocols such as TCP. For sending such a retransmission or other packets to this same destination E, if A has in its Route Cache another route to E (for example, from additional ROUTE REPLYs from its earlier Route Discovery, or from having overheard sufficient routing information from other packets), it can send the packet using the new route immediately. Otherwise, it may perform a new Route Discovery for this target. DSR uses two types of packets for route maintenance such as Route Error packet and Acknowledgements for reporting the presence of errors and reliable communication. (C) Advantages of DSR Source routing: No special mechanism needed to eliminate loops. On demand routing: DSR uses a reactive approach which eliminates the need to periodically flood the network with table update messages which are required in table-driven approach.

34 72 (D) Route caching : The intermediate nodes also utilize the route cache information efficiently to reduce the control overhead A single route discovery may yield many routes to the destination, due to intermediate nodes replying from local caches which will be useful when route breaks. Disadvantages of DSR Route maintenance mechanism does not repair a locally repair a broken down link. The connection setup delay is higher than in table-driven protocols The performance of DSR slightly degrades in the higher mobility scenarios. The source routing mechanism causes a considerable routing overhead An intermediate node may send Route Reply using a stale cached route, thus polluting other caches Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) The Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is a highly adaptive loop-free distributed routing algorithm based on the concept of link reversal proposed by Park and Corson [40].

35 73 The Temporally-Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is an algorithm for routing data across Wireless Mesh Networks or Mobile ad-hoc networks. It was developed by Vincent Park at the University of Maryland and the Naval Research Laboratory. Park has patented his work, and it was licensed by Nova Engineering, who are marketing a wireless router product based on Parks algorithm. (A) Operation The TORA attempts to achieve a high degree of scalability using a "flat", non-hierarchical routing algorithm. In its operation the algorithm attempts to suppress, to the greatest extent possible, the generation of farreaching control message propagation. In order to achieve this, the TORA does not use a shortest path solution, an approach which is unusual for routing algorithms of this type. TORA builds and maintains a Directed Acyclic Graph DAG rooted at a destination. No two nodes may have the same height. Information may flow from nodes with higher heights to nodes with lower heights. Information can therefore be thought of as a fluid that may only flow downhill. By maintaining a set of totally-ordered heights at all times, TORA achieves loop-free multipath routing, as information cannot 'flow uphill' and so cross back on itself. The key design concepts of TORA is localization of control messages to a very small set of nodes near the occurrence of a topological change. To accomplish this, nodes need to maintain the routing information about adjacent (one hop) nodes. The protocol performs three basic functions:

36 74 Route creation Route maintenance Route erasure During the route creation and maintenance phases, nodes use a height metric to establish a directed acyclic graph (DAG) rooted at destination. Thereafter links are assigned based on the relative height metric of neighboring nodes. During the times of mobility the DAG is broken and the route maintenance unit comes into picture to reestablish a DAG routed at the destination. Timing is an important factor for TORA because the height metric is dependent on the logical time of the link failure. TORA's route erasure phase is essentially involving flooding a broadcast clear packet (CLR) throughout the network to erase invalid routes (B) Route creation A node which requires a link to a destination because it has no downstream neighbours for it sends a QRY (query) packet and sets its (formerly unset) route-required flag. A QRY packet contains the destination id of the node a route is sought to. The reply to a query is called an update UPD packet. It contains the height quintuple of the neighbour node answering to a query and the destination field which tells for which destination the update was meant for. A node receiving a QRY packet does one of the following:

37 75 If its route required flag is set, this means that it doesn't have to forward the QRY, because it has itself already issued a QRY for the destination, but better discard it to prevent message overhead. If the node has no downstream links and the route-required flag was not set, it sets its route-required flag and rebroadcasts the QRY message. A node receiving an update packet updates the height value of its neighbour in the table and takes one of the following actions: If the reflection bit of the neighbours height is not set and its route required flag is set it sets its height for the destination to that of its neighbours but increments d by one. It then deletes the RR flag and sends an UPD message to the neighbours, so they may route through it. If the neighbours route is not valid (which is indicated by the reflection bit) or the RR flag was unset, the node only updates the entry of the neighbours node in its table. Each node maintains a neighbour table containing the height of the neighbour nodes. Initially the height of all the nodes is NULL. (This is not zero "0" but NULL "-") so their quintuple is (-,-,-,-,i). The height of a destination neighbour is (0,0,0,0,dest).

38 76 (C) Route Erasure When a node has detected a partition it sets its height and the heights of all its neighbours for the destination in its table to NULL and it issues a CLR (Clear) packet. The CLR packet consists of the reflected reference level (t,oid,1) and the destination id. If a node receives a CLR packet and the reference level matches its own reference level it sets all heights of the neighbours and its own for the destination to NULL and broadcasts the CLR packet. If the reference level doesn't match its own it just sets the heights of the neighbours its table matching the reflected reference level to NULL and updates their link status (- >undirected). (D) Advantages of TORA: That of an on-demand routing protocol create a DAG only when necessary. Multiple paths created. Good in dense networks. (E) Disadvantages of TORA: Same as on-demand routing protocols. Not much used since DSR and AODV outperform TORA. Not scalable by any means.

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