Chapter-2 Routing Protocols of MANET

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1 Chapter-2 Routing Protocols of MANET

2 Chapter 2 Routing Protocols of MANET Routing is an important function for any network, whether it is for wired or wireless. The protocols designed for routing in these two types of networks, however, have completely different characteristics. Routing protocols for wired networks neither need to handle mobility of nodes within the system nor have these protocols to be designed to minimize the communication overhead. This is so because wired networks generally have high bandwidths. Most importantly, the routing protocols in wireline networks or wireless infrastructure network are assumed to execute on trusted entities, namely the routers. But these characteristics change completely when Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) are considered as there are no special routers in MANETs. Hence, each node must perform routing functions in order to forward a packet to the destination. Mobility is therefore a basic feature in MANETs. Apart from this, resource constraints also govern the design of routing protocols for such networks. Therefore, routing protocols need to be specifically designed for MANETs. This indeed has been an area of focus of research for the last few years. Page 27

3 2.1 Classification of MANETs routing protocols Based on the instance at which the routes are set up, routing protocols for MANETs can mainly be classified into the three categories [97, 118, 119] illustrated in Figure 2.1. MANETs Routing Protocols Table-driven (or Proactive) On-demand (or Reactive) Hybrid Routing Protocol DSDV, OLSR, WRP, FSR, TBRPF ZRP AODV, DSR, TORA, CBRP, LAR Figure 2.1: MANETs Routing Protocols Table-driven (or Proactive) Routing Protocols Table driven routing protocols maintain at all times routing information regarding the connectivity of every node to all other nodes that participate in the network. Also known as proactive, these protocols allow every node to have a clear and consistent view of the network topology by propagating periodic updates. Therefore, all nodes are able to make immediate decisions regarding the forwarding of a specific packet. This is done at the cost of bandwidth. However, the main disadvantages of such algorithms are (i) Requirement of a large amount of data for maintenance at every node. (ii) Slow reaction on restructuring and failures. Page 28

4 Destination Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV) This algorithm uses routing table like Distance vector but each routing table entry is tagged with the sequence number, generated by destination. To maintain consistency among routing tables in a dynamically varying topology, updates are transmitted periodically. Each mobile station advertises its own routing table to its current neighbours [100]. DSDV is one of the early algorithms available and the main advantage of this protocol is that, it is quite suitable for creating ad hoc networks with a small number of nodes. One of the disadvantages of this protocol is that it requires a regular update of its routing tables, which uses up battery power and some amount of bandwidth, even when the network is idle. Secondly, whenever the topology of the network changes, a new sequence number is necessary before the network re-converges. Thus, DSDV is not suitable for highly dynamic networks. Optimized Link State Routing Protocol (OLSR) OLSR is an optimization of the classical link state algorithm tailored to the requirements of a mobile wireless LAN. The key concept used in the protocol is that of multipoint relays (MPRs). MPRs are selected nodes which forward broadcast messages during the flooding process. This technique substantially reduces the message overhead as compared to the classical flooding mechanism, where every node retransmits each message when it receives its first copy. In OLSR, link state information is generated only by nodes elected as MPRs. Thus, a second optimization is achieved by minimizing the number of control messages flooded in the network. As a third optimization, an MPR node may choose to report on y links between itself and its MPR selectors. Hence, as contrary to the classic link state algorithm, partial link state information is distributed in the network. This information is then used for the route calculation [28]. Page 29

5 This routing protocol has the advantage of having routes immediately available when needed due to its proactive nature. The main disadvantages of such algorithms are respective amount of data for maintenance and slow reaction on restructuring and failures. The Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) The Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) [84] is a table-driven protocol with the goal of maintaining routing information among all the nodes in network. Each node in the network is responsible for maintaining four tables (i) Distance table (ii) Routing table (iii) Link-cost table and (iv) the Message Retransmission List (MRL) table. Each entry of the MRL contains the sequence number of the update message, a retransmission counter, an acknowledgment-required flag vector with one entry per neighbor, and a list of updates sent in the update message. The MRL records which updates in an update message ought to be retransmitted and neighbors need to acknowledge its retransmission. Mobile Hosts (MHs) keep each other informed of all link changes through the use of update messages. An update message is sent only between the neighboring MHs and contains a list of updates (the destination, the distance of the destination, and the predecessor of the destination), as well as a list of responses indicating which MHs should acknowledge (ACK) the update. After processing updates from neighbors or detecting a change in a link, mobile nodes send update messages to a neighbor. Similarly, any new paths are relayed back to the original MHs to enable them update their tables accordingly. MHs learn about the existence of their neighbors from the receipt of acknowledgments and other messages. If MH does not send any message for a specified time period, it must send a hello message to ensure connectivity. Page 30

6 Otherwise, the lack of messages from the MH indicates the failure of that link and this may cause a false alarm. Whenever MH receives a hello message from a new MH, it adds this new MH to its routing table and sends a copy of its routing table information to this new MH. Part of the novelty of WRP stems from the way in which it achieves freedom from loops. In WRP, nodes communicate the distance and second-tolast hop information for each destination in the network. WRP belongs to the class of path-finding algorithms with an important exception that it avoids the "count-to-infinity" problem by forcing each node to perform consistency checks on predecessor information reported by all its neighbors. This ultimately (although not instantaneously) eliminates looping situations and provides faster route convergence if and when a link failure occurs. Fisheye State Routing The Fisheye State Routing (FSR) protocol [45, 62] introduces the notion of multi-level fisheye scope to reduce routing update overhead in large networks. Nodes exchange link state entries with their neighbors with a frequency that depends on distance to destination. From link state entries, nodes construct the topology map of the entire network and compute optimal routes. FSR tries to improve the scalability of a routing protocol by putting most efforts in gathering data on the topology information that is most likely to be needed soon. Assuming that nearby changes to the network topology are those most likely to matter, FSR tries to focus its view on nearby changes by observing them with the highest resolution in time and therefore changes at distant nodes are observed with a lower resolution and less frequently. Page 31

7 The Topology Broadcast based on Reverse Path Forwarding (TBRPF) Protocol The Topology Dissemination based on Reverse-Path Forwarding (TBRPF) protocol [91, 13] considers the problem of broadcasting topology information (including link costs and up/down status) to all nodes of a communication network. This information, together with a path selection algorithm, can be used by each node to compute preferred paths to all destinations, i.e., to perform routing based on link states. Most link-state routing protocols are based on flooding. In these protocols, each link-state update is sent on every link of the network. Although flooding is useful in networks with high bandwidth links, it can consume a significant percentage of link bandwidth in MANETs where the network contains links with relatively low bandwidth. The communication cost of broadcasting topology information can be reduced if the updates are sent along spanning trees. However, there is an additional communication cost for maintaining these trees. The main concern here is to ascertain whether the total communication cost is significantly less as compared to this additional cost. The TBRPF protocol is based on the extended reverse-path forwarding (ERPF) algorithm in which messages generated by a given source are broadcast in the reverse direction along the directed spanning tree formed by the shortest paths from all nodes to the source. ERPF assumes the use of an underlying routing algorithm by each node for instance node i in selecting the next node pt(v) along the shortest path to each destination (or broadcast source) node v. The node Pi(v) then becomes the parent of node i on the broadcast tree rooted at source node v. Each node informs its parent of this selection, so that each parent becomes aware of its children for each source. A node i receiving a broadcast message originating from source v from its parent p,(v) forwards the message to its children for source v (if it has children). Page 32

8 ERPF is not reliable when the shortest paths can change due to the dynamic topology. Therefore, the underlying routing algorithm should not depend on ERPF for topology broadcast. TBRPF combines the concept of ERPF with the use of sequence numbers to achieve reliability, and the computation of minimum-hop paths based on the topology information received along the broadcast tree rooted at the source of the information. Since minimum-hop paths are computed, each source node broadcasts link-state updates for its outgoing links along a minimum-hop tree rooted at the source. Therefore, a separate broadcast tree is created for each source. The use of minimum-hop trees instead of shortest-path trees (based on link costs) results in less frequent changes in the broadcast trees and therefore less communication cost to maintain the trees. TBRPF has the following chicken-egg paradox: it computes the paths for the broadcast trees based on the information received along the trees themselves. Thus, the correctness of TBRPF is not obvious. However, it is shown in [13] that every MH knows the correct topology in finite time using TBRPF, if no topology changes occur for some time. TBRPF is a simple, practical protocol that generates less update/control traffic than flooding and is therefore especially useful in networks that have frequent topology changes and have limited bandwidth. Page 33

9 2.1.2 Reactive Routing (On-demand) Protocol Reactive routing protocols, which appear to be more suitable for ad hoc networks, do not maintain up-to-date information about the network topology, as is done by the proactive ones, but they create routes on demand. Among reactive routing protocols, the Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) and the Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) are the most established and popular ones. This type of protocols finds a route on demand by flooding the network with Route Request packets. Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) This protocol performs Route Discovery using control messages Route Request (RREQ) and Route Reply (RREP). In AODV, routes are set up by flooding the network with RREQ packets which, however, do not collect the list of the traversed hops. Rather, as a RREQ traverses the network, the traversed mobile nodes store information about the source, the destination, and the mobile node from which they received the RREQ. The later information is used to set up the reverse path back to the source. When the RREQ reaches a mobile node, that knows a route to the destination or the destination itself, the mobile node responds to the source with a packet (RREP) which is routed through the reverse path set up by the RREQ. This sets the forward route from the source to the destination. To avoid overburdening the mobiles with information about routes which are no longer (if ever) used, nodes discard this information after a timeout. When either destination or intermediate node moves, a Route Error (RERR) is sent to the affected source nodes. When source node receives the RERR, it can reinitiate route discovery if the route is still needed. Neighborhood information is obtained by periodically broadcasting Hello packets [97, 98, 99]. For the maintenance of the routes, two methods can be used: a) ACK messages in MAC level or b) HELLO messages in network layer. Page 34

10 The main advantage of this protocol is that routes are established on demand and destination sequence numbers are used to find the latest route to the destination. The connection setup delay is lower. One of the disadvantages of this protocol is that intermediate nodes can lead to inconsistent routes if the source sequence number is very old and the intermediate nodes have a higher but not the latest destination sequence number, thereby having stale entries. Also multiple RREP packets in response to a single RREQ packet can lead to heavy control overhead. Another disadvantage of AODV is that the periodic beaconing leads to unnecessary bandwidth consumption. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) In DSR, when a mobile (source) needs a route to another mobile (destination), it initiates a route discovery process which is based on flooding. The source originates a RREQ packet that is flooded over the network. The RREQ packet contains a list of hops which is collected by the route request packet as it is propagated through the network. Once the RREQ reaches either the destination or a node that knows a route to the destination, it responds with a RREP along the reverse of the route collected by the RREQ [67]. This means that the source may receive several RREP messages corresponding, in general, to different routes to the destination. DSR selects one of these routes (for example the shortest), and it maintains the other routes in a cache. The routes in the cache can be used as substitutes to speed up the route discovery if the selected route gets disconnected. To avoid that RREQ packets travel forever in the network, nodes that have already processed a RREQ, discard any further RREQ bearing the same identifier. The main difference between DSR and AODV is in the way they keep the information about the routes: in DSR it is stored in the source while in AODV it is stored in the intermediate nodes. However, the route discovery phase of both is based on flooding. Page 35

11 This means that all nodes in the network must participate in every discovery process, regardless of their potential in actually contributing to set up the route or not, thus increasing the network load. Temporally Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) TORA was introduced by Park and Corson [94] is a distributed routing protocol for multi-hop networks. The unique feature of this protocol is that it endeavours to localize the spread of routing control packets. The protocol is basically an optimised hybrid of the Gafni Bertsekas (GB) protocol and the Lightweight Mobile Routing (LMR) protocol. It guarantees loop freedom, multiple routes and minimal communication overhead even in highly dynamic environments. The protocol attempts to minimise routing discovery overhead and in so doing prefers instant routes to optimal routes. The protocol supports source-initiated ondemand routing for networks with a high rate of mobility as well as destination oriented proactive routing for networks with lesser mobility. TORA maintains state on a per-destination basis and runs a logically separate instance of the algorithm for each destination. Cluster-Based Routing Protocol (CBRP) CBRP is a routing protocol designed for use in mobile ad hoc networks. The protocol divides the nodes of the ad hoc network into a number of overlapping or disjoint two-hop-diameter clusters in a distributed manner [65]. A cluster head is elected for each cluster to maintain cluster membership information. Inter cluster routes are discovered dynamically using the cluster membership information kept at each cluster head. By clustering nodes into groups, the protocol efficiently minimizes the flooding traffic during route discovery and speeds up this process as well. Page 36

12 Furthermore, the protocol takes into consideration the existence of unidirectional links and uses these links for both intra-cluster and inter-cluster routing. The two major new features that have been added to the protocol are route shortening and local repair. Both features make use of the two-hop-topology information maintained by each node through the broadcasting of Hello messages. The route shortening mechanism dynamically shortens the source route of the data packet being forwarded and informs the source about the better route. Local route repair patches a broken source route automatically and avoids route rediscovery by the source. In these protocols, clusters are introduced to minimize updating overhead during topology change. However, the overhead for maintaining up-to-date information about the whole network s cluster membership and inter cluster routing information at each and every node to route a packet is considerable. As network topology changes from time to time due to node movement, the effort to maintain such up-to-date information is expensive and rarely justified as such global cluster membership information is obsolete long before it is used. In comparison, simpler and smaller clusters are used; however, the use of these clusters is mainly for the task of channel assignment. Location-Aided Routing (LAR) The LAR Protocols use location information to reduce the search space for a desired route [73]. Limiting the search space results in fewer route discovery messages. Route Discovery using flooding: The possibility of using location information to improve performance of routing protocols for a MANET has been discussed. As an illustration, it is demonstrated by the author how a route discovery protocol based on flooding can be improved. The route discovery algorithm using flooding is described next. Page 37

13 When a node S needs to find a route to node D, node S broadcasts a route request message to all its neighbors; hereafter, node S will be referred to as the sender, and node D as the destination. A node (say, X), on receiving a route request message, compares the desired destination with its own identifier. If there is a match, it means that the request is for a route to itself (i.e., node X). Otherwise, node X broadcasts the request to its neighbors to avoid redundant transmissions of route requests, and node X only broadcasts a particular route request once (repeated reception of a route request is detected using sequence numbers). It is possible that the destination will not receive a route request message (for instance, when it is unreachable from the sender or route requests are lost due to transmission errors). In such cases, the sender needs to be able to reinitiate route discovery. Therefore, when a sender initiates route discovery, it sets a timeout. If during the timeout interval a route reply is not received, then a new route discovery is initiated (the route request messages for this route discovery will use a different sequence number than the previous route discovery recall that sequence numbers are useful to detect multiple receptions of the same route request). Timeout may occur if the destination does not receive a route request, or if the route reply message from the destination is lost. Route discovery is initiated either when the sender S detects that a previously determined route to node D is broken, or if S does not know a route to the destination. It is assumed that node S can know that the route is broken only if it attempts to use the route. When node S sends a data packet along a particular route, a node along that path returns a route error message, if the next hop on the route is broken. Page 38

14 When node S receives the route error message, it initiates route discovery for destination D. When using the above algorithm, it is observed that the route request would reach every node that is reachable from node S (potentially, all nodes in the ad hoc network). Using location information, an attempt to reduce the number of nodes to whom route request is made Hybrid Routing Protocol Hybrid protocols combine local proactive and global reactive routing in order to achieve a higher level of efficiency and scalability. For instance, a proactive scheme may be used for close by MHs only, while routes to distant nodes are found using reactive mode. Usually, but not always, hybrid protocols may be associated with some sort of hierarchy which can either be based on the neighbors of a node or on logical partitions of the network. The major limitation of hybrid schemes combining both strategies is that it still needs to maintain at least those paths that are currently in use. This limits the amount of topological changes that can be tolerated within a given time span. Even though sometimes not explicit, most hybrid protocols do try to employ some sort of hierarchical arrangement (or pseudo hierarchy). Usually, this hierarchy is based either on the neighbors of a node or in different partitions of the network. Some of the most referred hybrid routing protocols for MANETs are presented here as follows. The Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) The ZRP in contrast to other MANET routing protocols, integrates both proactive and reactive routing components into a single protocol to maintain valid routing tables without too much overhead. Around each node, ZRP defines a zone whose radius is measured in terms of hops. Each node utilizes proactive routing within its zone and reactive routing outside of its zone. Hence, a given node knows the identity of and a route to all nodes within its zone. Page 39

15 When the node has data packets for a particular destination, it checks its routing table for a route. If the destination lies within the zone, a route will exist in the route table. Otherwise, if not a search to find a route to that destination is needed [47]. For intrazone routing, ZRP defines the Intrazone Routing Protocol (IARP). IARP is a link-state protocol that maintains up-to-date information about all nodes within the zone. For any given node X, X s peripheral nodes are defined to be those nodes whose minimum distance to X is the zone radius. ZRP utilizes the Interzone Routing Protocol (IERP) for discovering routes to destinations outside of the zone. For route discovery, the notion of bordercasting is introduced. Once a source node determines the destination is not within its zone, the source bordercasts a query message to its peripheral nodes. During the bordercast, the query message is relayed toward these peripheral nodes using trees constructed within the intrazone topology. After receiving the message, the peripheral nodes, in turn, check whether the destination lies within their zone. If the destination is not located, the peripheral nodes in turn bordercast the query message to their peripheral nodes. This process continues until either the destination is located, or until the entire network is searched. Once a node discovers the destination, it unicast a reply message to the source node. The performance of some important routing protocols are studied, analyzed and evaluated through the simulations in Network Simulator-2 and published in paper [2, 43, 44]. Details of the simulation analysis are discussed in the following section 2.2. Page 40

16 2.2 Performance Analysis of DSR, OLSR and ZRP routing protocol Simulation Setup and Network Scenario The simulations are performed on Linux Fedora using Network Simulator 2 (NS-2) [143]. The traffic sources are Constant Bit Rate (CBR). The source destination pairs are spread randomly over the network. The mobility model uses random waypoint model in a rectangular field of 1000m x 1000m with 25 nodes to 100 nodes with maximum speed 20 m/s. and pause time zero (0). Different network scenario for different number of nodes for 5 connections and 10 connections is generated. It is considered any particular value for plotting the graph by averaging 10 different scenarios. Table 2.1 contains the summary of the model parameters that have been used for the experiments. Table 2.1: Simulation Parameters Parameter Value Simulator Ns-2(ver.2.33) Simulation time 100 Sec. Number of nodes 25,50,75,100 Routing Protocol DSR, OLSR & ZRP Traffic Model CBR(UDP) No. of Connections 5,10 Topology size 1000m x 1000m Packet size 512 byte MAC protocol IEEE Propagation model Two-Ray Ground Model Antenna type Omni Antenna Mobility Model Random waypoint Page 41

17 2.2.2 Performance Metrics This subsection provides the general terminology of performance metrics that we consider for the simulations throughout our research work presented in this thesis. First four performance metrics of Table 2.2 are considered for comparison of DSR, OLSR & ZRP routing protocol. Table 2.2: Summary of Performance Metrics Sr. No Performance Metrics Packet Delivery Fraction (PDF) Average Endto-End Delay (AED) Average Throughput (AT) Description This is the ratio of the number of data packets successfully delivered to the destinations to those generated by sources. Packet Delivery Fraction = received packets/sent packets * 100. It is defined as the average time taken by data packets to propagate from source to destination across a MANET. This includes all possible delays caused by buffering during routing discovery latency, queuing at the interface queue, and retransmission delays at the MAC, propagation and transfer times of data packets. It is the rate of successfully transmitted data packets in a unit time in the network during the simulation. Page 42

18 4. Normalized Routing Load (NRL) The number of routed packets transmitted per data packet delivered at the destination. Each hop-wise transmission of a routing packet is counted as one transmission. The routing load metric evaluates the efficiency of the routing protocol. 5. Accumulated Average Processing Time (APT) It is the summation of average processing time taken by the protocol in doing the key functionality viz. recvrequest, recvreply, recvrequestack. We have taken this parameter to decisively compare the performance of our proposed AODVSEC with already available SAODV Result and Analysis In this Section, the capabilities of the three routing protocol are studied. Simulation results are collected from total of 60 scenarios of the three protocols. Performance metrics are calculated from trace file, with the help of AWK program. The simulation results are shown in the following section in the form of line graphs. Figure 2.2 (a): PDF vs. Number of Nodes (5 connections) Page 43

19 Figure 2.2 (b): PDF vs. Number of Nodes (10 connections) From the Figure 2.2. (a) and 2.2. (b), we conclude that DSR has higher PDF as compared to that of OLSR and ZRP, while OLSR has lower PDF values compared to that of DSR but its performance growth is same as DSR. ZRP starts with higher value for small number of nodes in the network but decreases with higher number of nodes and becomes much lower than other two protocols. Figure 2.3 (a): AED vs. Number of Nodes (5 connections) Figure 2.3 (b):aed vs. Number of Nodes (10 connections) Page 44

20 From the Figure 2.3 (a) and 2.3 (b), it can be noted that AED is very less and does not vary much with the higher number of nodes for OLSR. For DSR, having started with quite high value, it decreases drastically in the range of 25 to 50 nodes and rises slowly, thereafter. However, the performance of ZRP for this metric is poor compared to the other two protocols. Figure 2.4 (a):at vs. Number of Nodes (5 connections) Figure 2.4 (b):at vs. Number of Nodes (10 connections) From the above Figure 2.4 (a) and 2.4 (b), it is clear that DSR has higher value of throughput compared to OLSR and ZRP. Though OLSR has lower value compared to DSR, it has higher value than ZRP on an average. ZRP has the least throughput in comparison to other two protocols for number of nodes 50. Page 45

21 Figure 2.5 (a) : NRL vs. Number of Nodes (5 connections) Figure 2.5 (b ): NRL vs. Number of Nodes (10 connections) Figure 2.5 (a) and 2.5 (b) show the performance for Normalized Routing load (NRL) parameter, which is almost negligible for DSR and remains constant with respect to number of nodes in network. OLSR has higher NRL compared to DSR but is much lesser than ZRP and increases with the number of the nodes. NRL for ZRP increases with number of nodes and remains much higher in comparison to the other two protocols. Table 2.3 shows the performance summary of the concerned protocols for different parameters. Page 46

22 Table 2.3: Performance Comparison of DSR, OLSR and ZRP in worst case for 10 connections Performance Value of Protocol DSR OLSR ZRP PDF Highest (92%) Moderate (62%) Average (18%) AED Moderate (300 sec.) Least (180 sec.) Highest (580 sec.) AT Highest (85 bps) Higher (58bps) Lesser (15bps) NRL Least (5) Low (15) Higher (190) Here, our simulation work illustrates the performance of the three routing protocols DSR, OLSR and ZRP. DSR s performance is the best, considering its ability to maintain connection by periodic exchange of information. To conclude with our analysis wok, it is observed that the performance of DSR is the best in comparison to OLSR and ZRP for almost all of the performance metrics. In next scenario, DSR with AODV and DSDV are compared. Page 47

23 2.3 Performance Analysis of DSR, AODV and DSDV routing protocol Simulation Setup and Network Scenario The simulations were performed using Network Simulator 2 (NS-2.33) [143]. The traffic sources are Constant Bit Rate (CBR). The source destination pairs are spread randomly over the network. The mobility model uses random waypoint model in a rectangular field of 1000m x 1000m with 25 nodes to 200 nodes. Different network scenario for different number of nodes for 5 connections and 10 connections are generated. Table 2.3 contains the summary of the model parameters that have been used for our experiments. Table 2.4: Simulation Parameters Parameter Value Simulator Ns-2(ver.2.33) Simulation time 100 Sec. Number of nodes 25,50,75,100,125,150,175,200 Routing Protocol DSR, AODV & DSDV Traffic Model CBR(UDP) No. of Connections 5,10 Topology size 1000m x 1000m Packet size 512 byte MAC protocol IEEE Propagation model Two-Ray Ground Model Antenna type Omni Antenna Mobility Model Random waypoint Page 48

24 2.3.2 Performance Metrics We consider performance metrics mentioned in Table No. 2.2 (excluding APT) Result and Analysis In this Section, capabilities of the three routing protocol are studied with an objective to evaluate more reliable performance of DSR, AODV and DSDV routing protocols in same simulation environment (25 to 200 mobile nodes). Simulations results are collected from a total of 60 scenarios of the three protocols. Performance metrics are calculated from trace file, with the help of AWK program. The simulation results are shown in the following section in the form of line graphs. Graphs show comparison between the three protocols by varying different numbers of sources. Figure 2.6 (a): PDF Vs. Number of Nodes (with 5 Connections) Figure 2.6 (b): PDF Vs. Vs. Number of Nodes (with 10 Connections) Page 49

25 From the Figure 2.6 (a) and 2.6 (b), it is observed a significant advantage to AODV when the number of nodes is increased in mobile networks. Overall, the data packet delivery fraction of AODV and DSR is higher in a scenario with high mobility than that of DSDV. Figure 2.6(b) shows that the AODV manages to deliver a greater fraction of data packets in scenarios with high mobility in large mobile networks. Figure 2.7 (a): AED vs. Number of Nodes (with 5 Connections) Figure 2.7 (b): AED vs. Number of Nodes (with 10 Connections) The delay is affected by high rate of CBR packets as well. The buffers become full much quicker, so the packets have to stay in the buffers for a much longer period of time before they are sent. In Figure 2.7(a) DSR decreases and varies with the number of nodes in the networks, however, the performance of AODV is degrading due to increase in the number of nodes. Page 50

26 In Figure 2.7(b), it is noticed that the performance of DSR is degrading due to increase in the number of nodes in the networks. The performance of the AODV is slightly better. Average delay is less for DSDV routing protocol and remains constant as the number of nodes increases. Figure 2.8 (a): Throughput Vs. Number of Nodes (with 5 Connections) Figure 2.8 (b): Throughput Vs. Number of Nodes (with 10 Connections) From the above Figure 2.8 (a) and 2.8 (b), it is clear that AODV gives better throughput and outperforms even the DSR. Page 51

27 Figure 2.9 (a): NRL Vs. Number of Nodes (with 5 Connections) Figure 2.9 (b): NRL vs. Number of Nodes (with 10 Connections) Normalized routing load (NRL) of DSR, AODV and DSDV protocols in different sources are presented in Figure 2.9(a) and 2.9(b). In Figure 2.9 (a) (5 connection/source), DSR and AODV demonstrate lower routing load. Proactive routing protocol DSDV showed higher routing load than the reactive routing protocols DSR and AODV. In Figure 2.9(b) (10 connection/source), as network load is increased, Normalized Routing Load of AODV and DSR is much higher than the DSDV. In this simulation, due to high congestion in the ad-hoc network, AODV requires more routing packets to maintain transmission of data packets. The same simulation environment path, mobility and traffic patterns for these three protocols are used and AODV has consistent and DSR has worse NRL as the number of nodes is increased. It is observed that DSR routing protocol performs well when the number of nodes is less, however its performance declines drastically with increased number of nodes in the network. Page 52

28 The performance of DSDV is better when the number of nodes is increasing in the network. Table 2.5 summarise the performance comparison of DSR, AODV and DSDV in worst case scenario of 10 connections. Table 2.5: Summary of Performance Comparison of DSR, AODV and DSDV Performance Value of PDF Protocol AODV DSDV DSR Best (85%) Least (40%) Performs well when the number of nodes is less but it declines drastically when the numbers of nodes are increased. (50%) AED Performance Least and Degrade when number Degrades remains of nodes increase in when number constant as the the networks.(750 of nodes number of sec.) increase in nodes increase the networks. in the networks. (400 sec.) (50 sec.) AT Best (80 bps) Least (38 bps) Better than DSDV (50 bps) NRL NRL Higher routing Much higher than the continuously load than the AODV when network increases AODV and DSR. load is increased. with increase (100) (255) in number of nodes. (155) Page 53

29 Our simulation work further illustrates the performance of three routing protocols DSR, AODV and DSDV. The performance varies widely across different network sizes and results from one scenario cannot be applied to those from the other scenario. AODV performance is the best considering its ability to maintain connection by periodic exchange of information. Throughput, which is the most important aspect for any protocol is maintained by the AODV and is better than the DSR and DSDV even when the network has a larger number of nodes. Overall, our simulation work shows that AODV performs better. Average End-to-End Delay is the least for DSDV and does not change if the no of nodes are increased. Initially, when these MANETs routing protocols proactive (table driven), reactive (on demand) and hybrid routing protocols were proposed and designed, security aspects were not considered, they mainly focus on routing for better performance and have little defense capability against the malicious nodes. Interestingly, designing a secure and trustworthy routing protocol is very challenging in the presence of selfish or adversarial entities which drop the packets they agreed to forward; and in so doing these can disrupt the network traffic and cause a range of communication problems. AODV based secure routing protocols are further studied and examined in section 3.3 and 3.4 of the thesis. Page 54

30 Chapter Summary In the beginning of this chapter, we provided an overview of routing in Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) and then discussed about different types of routing protocols available for MANETs. Following that, we studied, analyzed and evaluated the performance of DSR, OLSR, ZRP routing protocols and then DSR, AODV, DSDV routing protocols through the simulations in Network Simulator-2. Our findings through the simulation results are presented and it is validated that the AODV gives better performance amongst all other reactive, proactive and hybrid routing protocols. Thus, we conclude that AODV is most suitable and a viable choice to carry out our research work to investigate and propose security mechanisms to enhance security in MANETs. Page 55

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