Abstraction. Abstraction
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1 9/11/ Software today is more complex than it has ever been. Software controls Space shuttle systems during launch Elevators in 100-story buildings Cross-Atlantic transportation routes of freighters How electricity generated in a power plant is added to power grid supplying an entire continent 9/11/ Knowledge required to build and maintain any of these systems requires understanding and detailed modeling. Software is complex because it models complexity in the real world. Complex software persists and must be maintained. Extending functionality is like adding to a house of cards. No one person can understand all the parts, and making changes to any part can have disastrous results. 9/11/
2 is a fundamental technique people use to deal with a complex world. It is the process of simplifying a difficult problem; it is the key to designing good software. Mental models Road map vstopological map vsclimatological map Grouping conceptual entities into one (tel.numbers) One way to deal with complex software systems is to observe how other complex systems deal with complexity. (computers,cars,organizations ) 9/11/ A computer system is an abstract machine whose separate parts logically form a whole: Composed of CPU, monitor, keyboard, secondary storage device CPU further decomposed into primary memory, ALU, and bus with peripheral devices attached ALU decomposed into registers, random control logic Control decomposed into NAND gates, inverters, etc. Levels of hierarchy represent different levels of abstraction. All the parts work together to provide the functionality of the whole. The behavior of the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. (Booch) 9/11/ We see the same kind of hierarchies in organizations. Multinationals contain companies which contain divisions which contain branches which contain local offices. As with the computer example, there are always clear boundaries between the outside and inside of a level Employees within a department will interact more often than employees in different departments. A file clerk will not usually interact with a vice-president. All, however, are connected by common functions (paid by the same department, share the same system, etc.) 9/11/
3 Discovering common abstractions facilitates our understanding of complex systems. Knowing how to drive one 5-speed car means you can drive any 5-speed car, once you become familiar with any differences in the controls focuses on the essential characteristics of some object, relative to the perspective of the viewer. --Booch A red bird is a beautiful animal to a bird watcher; to a cat, it s dinner 9/11/ Evolution of Programming Languages Consider the evolution of programming languages Early on, programming involved sending binary instructions to the computer by manually setting switches on its front panel. Later, assembly language provided mnemonics to represent the binary instructions - abstracting the meaning of the bit patterns. 9/11/ Evolution of Programming Languages Programmer-defined instructions (macros) added another level of abstraction: grouping primitive instructions into one instruction that does many things High-level programming languages allow programmers to write programs without worrying about what machine they will run on -- details of architecture are hidden -- each instruction invokes many different machine instructions 9/11/
4 Evolution of Programming Languages Procedures were introduced with structured programming -- sequences of high-level language statements invoked by a single statement. Complex actions of procedure hidden behind the interface. Control abstractions (loops and if -then statements) allow further abstraction of common conditions for altering the execution sequence. 9/11/ Evolution of Programming Languages ADTs allow programmers to code without knowing how data is represented they code at abstract level of what can be done with the data -- details of implementation are hidden ADTs allow you to define new language types that can be safely used (e.g. stack or queue) such an ADT can be passed to methods such an ADT is called a first-class object 9/11/ Encapsulation ADTs enforce encapsulation prevent users of an object from becoming tightly coupled to the object s underlying implementation encourage loosely coupled code Code that is independent of the implementation of other components is loosely coupled Code that is tightly bound to the implementation of other components is tightly coupled 9/11/
5 Encapsulation The OO approach abstracts out knowledge and encapsulates it within objects concern is for the what, not the how what operations need to be performed? and what information results from the operations? responsibility for operations and resulting information is assigned to objects code dependence is limited by programming to a well-defined interface 9/11/ Example of Code Dependence public class Customer { public Item[] items; //array to hold some items } Should be private public static void main (String args[] ) { Customer customer = new Customer(); // select some item Depends on //price the items implementation double total = 0.0; in Customer. for (int i =0; i <customer.items.length; i++) { Item item = customer.items[i]; total = total + item.getadjustedtotal(); } } 9/11/ Encapsulation Three characteristics of effective encapsulation abstraction implementation hiding division of responsibility 9/11/
6 Encapsulating Object Responsibilities OO programs trust objects to do their respective jobs When you do not let objects handle their own tasks, as appropriate, then you have datacentric, procedural code a main function that would give instructions to a Queue in each step of its enqueue() process is procedural If you send messages to an object and rely on it to do its job, you are doing object-oriented programming. 9/11/ is the Basis for SW Development Requirements gathering can overwhelm if too many details are included. A system model reflects the essential aspects of the problem domain. Eye color is unimportant if developing a flight reservation system, but it may be important in an optometrist s patient database A model is a graphical representation of an abstraction A spreadsheet is a model for a gradebook 9/11/ & Reuse enables reuse. Consider the following problems: Example 1: a bank has one teller. Customers enter the line for the teller as they enter the bank. Customers are served in the order they arrived in line. Example 2: a fast-food restaurant keeps frozen hamburger patties in boxes labeled with the date they were put in the freezer. The cook removes the boxes of frozen hamburgers according to which box has been in the freezer the longest. 9/11/
7 & Reuse Both of these examples are in the same problem domain: a FIFO queue. It doesn t matter what the elements are; both problems fit a queuing model. The queue can be created once and reused in any problem that models a domain where there is a FIFO ordering of the elements. Finding abstractions that can be reused is called pattern matching and reuse Software patterns are an important component of OO software development 9/11/ & Modeling It is important to model the correct abstractions. There can be more than one way of looking at a problem, producing more than one correct model. However, there can also be incorrect models (e.g. modeling a person with 2 blood types) Correctness of a model (correct requirements gathering) is proven by how successful software is 9/11/ Modeling Modeling is the process by which we develop a pattern for something to be made. Model building involves the principles of decomposition, abstraction and hierarchy. There is no cookbook approach to modeling complex software systems no silver bullet. Design of such systems involves incremental and iterative process. Necessary elements of software design methods include: 1. Notation a language for expressing the model 2. Process activities that determine the abstractions 3. Tools software that aids in automating the model 9/11/
8 OOP: some tips Avoid too much abstraction when writing classes a Person class cannot be written so abstractly that it fits every domain; it will have some features that are domain-specific The more responsibilities an object has, the more complex it is and the harder it will be to maintain When designing classes, think in terms of objects and interactions, not data and methods 9/11/
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