Principle of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4: Syntactic Analysis. Alessandro Artale
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1 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (1) Principle of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4: Syntactic Analysis Alessandro Artale Faculty of Computer Science Free University of Bolzano Room: artale/ 2003/2004 Second Semester
2 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (2) Summary of Lecture IV Part 4 Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
3 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (3) When SLR is not Adequate Example Consider the following Grammar and the Canonical Collection: Augmented Grammar! "
4 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (4) When SLR is not Adequate (Cont) Consider now the set of items in : 1 If we consider the first item, then, action shift 6 2 If we consider the second item, since action reduce FOLLOW, then, Since there is both a shift and a reduce action the entry for action defined (shift/reduce conflict) The Grammar is not ambiguous, but the SLR is not powerful enough is multiply
5 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (5) The problem can be modeled as follow: Why SLR fails 1 The stack contains the string ; 2 The item set contains the item ; 3 Lookahead symbol is a and a FOLLOW Problem The state that is on top of the stack BUT reducing with cannot be followed by a in a right-sentential form is such
6 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (6) Why SLR fails: An Example * id id * * =! " If we are in state = then the stack contains with lookahead on top If we reduce with then the sack is can only reduce with In state with we with lookahead $, then the parsing fails since action error id
7 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (7) Summary Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
8 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (8) Towards LR Parsing: A Solution to SLR failure Add more information in the state to rule out invalid reductions Each state of an LR Parser indicates what symbol can follow a handle for which there is a possible reduction Definition An LR(1) Item is then a pair is called the Lookahead of the Item Furthermore,, where a FOLLOW
9 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (9) LR(1) Items describes a context of the parser: We are trying to find an We have followed by an a, and already on top of the stack Thus we need to see next a prefix derived from a The lookahead has no effect in items of the form BUT, with, On items input symbol is a, the parser reduces with only if the next
10 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (10) Summary Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
11 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (11) The Closure Operation To construct the Collection of sets of Items we proceed as in the construction of the LR(0) Canonical Collection but with new closure and goto operations Algorithm Closure(I) Let a set of LR(1) items for an augmented Grammar, then closure is a set of items such that: 1 Initially every item in is added to clusure(i); 2 If closure(i) and to closure(i), where more items can be added to closure(i) FIRST, then we add the item Go to step 1 until no Intuition Considering the addition of the productions involving must take into account the context of the parser
12 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (12) The Goto Operation and LR(1) Item Collection Definition If is a set of items and is a grammar symbol, then, goto is the closure of the set of all items is in such that LR(1) Item Collection We proceed as in the construction of the LR(0) Canonical Collection but with new closure and goto operations The initial condition is: closure
13 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (13) LR(1) Item Collection: An Example Example Build the LR(1) Item Collection for the following augmented Grammar:
14 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (14) Summary Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
15 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (15) LR(1) Parsing Table Algorithm LR(1) Parsing Tables Action and Goto 1 Construct grammar, the LR(1) item collection for the augmented 2 To each item set action action action we create a new state = shift = reduce, if = accept, if, for all Then the action table is:, and goto Here 3 goto, if goto 4 All the entries not defined by rules (2) and (3) are made error 5 The initial state is the one constructed from the closure of
16 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (16) Canonical LR(1) Parsers The parsing table produced by the above algorithm is called the Canonical LR(1) Parsing Table; A parser using this table is called a Canonica LR(1) Parser; If the table has no multiply-defined entries then the Grammar is called an LR(1) Grammar
17 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (17) Summary Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
18 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (18) LALR Parsers LALR stands for LookAhead-LR Parser Is often used in practice since the parsing tables are considerably smaller than the canonical LR tables (SLR and LALR) Vs LR The comparison is in term of size For a language like Pascal we go from hundreds of states to thousand of states Main Idea: Merge the states (Item sets) whose items differ only in the lookahead We say that such states have the same core
19 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (19) LALR Parsers: An Example Example The Grammar: Has items,, and with the same core we obtain: with the same core By merging items Consider the merged state The LALR parser will reduce d to on any input, even in situations where the original LR parser would generate an error! In any case, the LALR parser will communicate the same error but at a later stage
20 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (20) Summary Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
21 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (21) Introducing Conflicts by Merging States Starting from an LR(1) Grammar and merging states with the same core we can only introduce reduce/reduce conflicts We show that no shift/reduce conflicts are present Suppose there is a merged state with a shift/reduce conflict on input a: Then, there is an LR(1) state such that: (for some c) And presents a shift/reduce conflict on input a Absurd
22 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (22) Introducing Conflict by Merging States (Cont) We show how it is possible to introduce reduce/reduce conflicts Consider the following LR states: Neither of these sets generates a conflict, however, their merge: generates a reduce/reduce conflict on both input d and e Note In case of a reduce/reduce conflict the Grammar is no more LALR Thus, LALR is a simpler Grammar then an LR Grammar
23 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (23) Summary Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
24 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (24) LALR Parsing Table The algorithm we present serves primarily for defining LALR Grammars there are more efficient techniques Algorithm LALR(1) Parsing Tables Action and Goto 1 Construct grammar, the LR(1) item collection for the augmented 2 Find all LR(1) states having the same core and merge them Let the resulting item collection 3 To each item set we create a new state constructed as in case of LR(1) parsers Then the action table is 4 The goto function is constructed as follows If cores of goto goto are all the same Let sets of item having the same core as goto, then goto, then the the union of all
25 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (25) LALR Parsing Table (Cont) If there is a reduce/reduce conflict in the above construction the Grammar is not LALR(1); The parsing table produced by the above algorithm is called the LALR Parsing Table; A parser using this table is called an LALR(1) Parser;
26 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (26) LALR Parser: An Example Example The Grammar: Has the following LALR(1) Item Collection: where: The LALR Parsing Table is: c d $ 0 s36 s acc 2 s36 s s36 s r3 r3 r3 5 r1 89 r2 r2 r2,
27 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (27) Summary Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
28 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (28) Behavior of LR Vs LALR On correct input both parsers make the same sequence of shift and reduce, only the state s names change On erroneous input the LALR parser make more moves (reductions) than the LR parser
29 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (29) Behavior of LR Vs LALR: An Example Example Consider as input the string ccd The LR parser will push onto the stack: Ending with an error in state and current input $ The LALR parser will push onto the stack: State State with input $ reduces with with input $ reduces with A similar reduction applies and the stack is: Ending finally with an error in state and the stack is: and the stack is: and current input $
30 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (30) Summary of Lecture IV Part 4 Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
31 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (31) Ambiguous Grammars Ambiguous Grammars provide a shorter and more natural specification This is reflected by a parser requiring a minor number of states Ambiguous Grammars are not LR: A parsing table will have multiply-defined entries; A parsing table will contain shift/shift and shift/reduce conflicts To deal with ambiguous grammars we use disambiguating rules that eliminate all the conflicts allowing for only one Parse-Tree
32 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (32) Precedence and Associativity Rules The following ambiguous Grammar for arithmetic expressions does not specify the associativity and the precedence of : The unambiguous Grammar: Enforces precedence of over +, and left-associativity of + and Note The parser for the unambiguous Grammar is less efficient: The time spent for reducing the single productions and has the sole function to enforce associativity and precedence
33 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (33) Precedence and Associativity Rules (Cont) Let us consider the following LR(0) items for the ambiguous Grammar (see the Book for the complete set of states): FOLLOW State generates a conflict between reduce with with input + and, and shift State generates a conflict between reduce with with input + and, and shift Both Conflicts can be solved using the Precedence and Associativity for + and
34 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (34) Precedence and Associativity Rules (Cont) Consider the input id + id id and the following configuration: STACK INPUT Assuming that stack instead of reducing with takes precedence over +, the parser should shift onto the Consider the input id + id + id and the following configuration: STACK INPUT Assuming that + is left-associative, the parser should reduce with instead of shift onto the stack
35 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (35) Precedence and Associativity Rules (Cont) Summary Precedence and Associativity uniquely determine the actions of the parser eliminating the ambiguity: 1 Left-Associativity of : action reduce with 2 Left-Associativity of : action reduce with 3 Precedence of over : action shift 4 Precedence of over : action reduce with
36 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (36) Dangling-Else Ambiguity Consider the following Grammar for IF-THEN-ELSE statements: Where, other productions stands for if expr then, stands for else, and stands for all Let us consider the following LR(0) item for this ambiguous Grammar (see the Book for the complete set of states): FOLLOW Assuming that the stack contains: if expr then stmt ( top, and the next input is else there is a shift/reduce conflict ) with state on Solution else must match the last if: action shift else
37 Free University of Bolzano Principles of Compilers Lecture IV Part 4, 2003/2004 AArtale (37) Summary of Lecture IV Part 4 Inadequacy of SLR Parsing LR(1) Parsing Closure and Goto Operations, Canonical Collection LR(1) Parsing Tables LALR(1) Parsing Conflicts in LALR Parsers LALR(1) Parsing Tables LALR Vs LR Parsers Dealing with Ambiguous Grammars
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