Designing information architecture: theory and practice

Designing information architecture: theory and practice I. IA as theory Information interaction as a basis for IA Information shape and semantic space Cognitive work analysis II. IA practice What do IAs do? What do IAs have to know? IA deliverables

I. IA as theory Information interaction: Providing a framework for information architecture Toms believes that there is a gap in our understanding of how we interact with information technologies The model of information interaction can address this gap and provide a theoretical basis for IA ~What is an example of a way in which a web interface enhances the information task? Of an interface that hinders an information task? ~Apply the concept of information interaction to your use of a web site - what happens?

I. IA as theory Toms argues that the initial focus should be how people interact in information-rich environments Interaction: situated action with an IS involving querying, browsing (filling a gap in HCI) Primarily use of GUI with some command line work We immerse ourselves in info IA enables access by providing a systematic and primarily visual approach to the organization of content IA facilitates the quest for information Toms, E.G. (2002). Information interaction: Providing a framework for information architecture. JASIST, 53(10), 855-862.

I. IA as theory How information interaction (II) occurs We can come to a system with an information task Problem-solving: we go through a patterned process and end with a relevance judgment We can also have chance encounters, encounters with information, scanning activities These are less patterned but still end with some type of judgment Then we browse, navigate, search, evaluate II is the basis of the person s use experience and is shaped by web technology

I. IA as theory A model of information interaction Formulate goal: object or purpose Select category: approach system and select search term Note cues: landmarks Extract information Integrate information Evaluate Toms (2002; 658)

I. IA as theory Spatial semantics and individual differences in the perception of shape in information space Dillon argues that information spaces have shape, meaning that we perceive these spaces using a combination of structural cues Using a sociocognitive approach, IAs can improve the design of these spaces by attending to spatial and semantic affordances that are relevant for the audience ~ In what ways do you interact with the semantics of digital information spaces? ~ Based on this article, what should IAs do to improve the design of information spaces?

I. IA as theory Problem: users experience disorientation in navigating large digital spaces to locate and use information Complexity can overwhelm users abilities to filter and represent spaces in ways that allow navigation, seeking and use The primary response has been to focus on visual display and the manipulation of interface variables This is good for building usable artifacts but does not explain why interface characteristics produce the results that emerge Dillon, A. (2000) Spatial semantics and individual differences in the perception of shape in information space. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 51(6), 521-528

I. IA as theory A major source of cognitive overhead for users is the need to navigate complex information spaces We use knowledge of genre and semantics to infer structure This ability varies with expertise and experience Semantics are crucial to the process through which a discourse community learns to shape its interactions over time Design solutions attempt to reduce the load on short term memory with visual cues They should also focus on semantic space because it is also important for users

I. IA as theory A better approach focuses on spatial and semantic information, particularly on individual differences Because when tasks are computerized, differences between users are increased, not reduced Differences that matter Deep, relatively constant psychological processes Spatial ability or memory span Knowledge-base differences are more transient and subject to alteration with training and experience These interact to affect the user s ability to perceive structure or shape in information space

I. IA as theory How it works A user perceives an information display and creates a dynamic working model of the information space based on current contents and format Relevant spatial attributes combine with activated memories of just-processed information Semantic attributes of the information genre applied top-down Result: a continuously updated and modifiable dynamic representation of the space for a task

I. IA as theory A case study of collaborative information retrieval Fidel et al use a cognitive work analysis approach to conduct a case study of collaborative IR to uncover the factors that influence people's information behaviors After contrasting psychological, social, and multidimensional approaches to information behaviors they focus on the human-information interactions that occur in people's routine work activities ~ How does collaboration in the workplace influence people's information behaviors? ~ What is the advantage of using cognitive work analysis to study ways people use information in the workplace?

I. IA as theory Recent activity has focused on theoretical development in human-information interaction Critical: what is the set of variables that matter when considering this interaction? Prior work as focused on a single dimension They use a naturalistic approach to uncover the factors that make a difference in this type of II They found that the factors that influence CIR are in different dimensions that interact with each other Fidel, R., Pejtersen, A.M., Cleal, B. and Bruce, H. (2004). A multidimensional approach to the study of human-information interaction: A case study of collaborative information retrieval. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 55(11), 939-953.

I. IA as theory The prevailing approach in information behavior research in LIS is psychological It focuses primarily on cognitive factors and less on others, such as affective and perceptual factors How cognition shapes IB Allows quantification and measurement, and prediction The objects of study are cognitive states and processes in relation to information behavior Important concept is information need Problem: ignores sociocultural, organizational, and technical dimensions

I. IA as theory The social approach focuses on social, organizational, and political states and processes as impetus for IB Focuses on the social context, interactions, and discourse through which II occurs Does not consider information need as central to the understanding of IB The study of IB cannot be based on isolated individuals, or outside a specific context Problem: research with the social approach offers few descriptive generalizations about information behavior

I. IA as theory Multidimensional approach assumes IB takes place in complex contexts Also that we are goal driven The better this complexity is understood and analyzed, the more relevant the outcomes of research will be to the design of information systems and services Requires flexible methods to understand information seeking and use in context Studies using this approach typically focus on a specific group of people, in a certain context, performing a particular task

I. IA as theory They use cognitive work analysis Based on general systems thinking, adaptive control systems, and ecological psychology Focus on work activities, organizational relationships, and constraints of the work place Also actors cognitive and social activities and values, priorities and personal preferences performing tasks on the job It is a holistic approach that makes it possible to account for several dimensions of IB and CIR

I. IA as theory Component used here is the decision ladder First: analyze the situation to understand problems and circumstances involved Second: evaluate options, considering possibilities and consequences of each option Third: make a decision and plan how to carry it out Dimensions Environment, work domain, organizational analysis Task analysis in work domain terms; in decision making terms; in terms of strategies that can be used Actor s resources and values

II. IA practice Information architecture without internal theory: An inductive design process Haverty argues that IA as a profession is characterized by a lack of theory and that because of the way peoples work, the process must be inductive This approach better allows the IA to understand the relationship between site structure and the user experience ~ What does it mean to describe IA as constructive induction? ~ In what ways would IA benefit from theory?

II. IA practice Haverty argues that IA must be inductive It does not have an existing body of theory which typically guides the work of a field Theory constrains acceptable solutions through formal validation Without it, IAs tend to treat each problem as novel Also, it supports emergent phenomena The IA domain has a small set of initial components and a relatively simple set of rules These lead to a large number of complex patterns Haverty, M. (2002). Information architecture without internal theory: An inductive design process. Journal of the ASIST, 53(10), 839-845.

II. IA practice IA as constructive induction This is a process for generating a design solution using two intertwined searches First: identify the most adequate representational framework for the problem Second: locate the best design solution within the framework and translate it to the problem at hand CI is useful when existing theory cannot adequately explain the object of study

II. IA practice Steps of CI 1. What are the basic design problems for the system? Determine goals, vision, business and other requirements Decompose the problem Each requires a design solution Haverty 2002, 841.

II. IA practice Steps of CI 2. Find a framework for each design problem Identify a solution within the framework May involve looking at work in other fields Each requires a design solution Haverty 2002, 841.

II. IA practice Steps of CI 3. Translate solution into a context of the current design problem This is a creative step Involves understanding the original concept and knowing how to repurpose it Haverty 2002, 841.

II. IA practice Steps of CI 4. Integrate solutions into an overall IA Validate the solutions against the original high level goals and objectives of the site May involve member checking and usability work Haverty 2002, 841.

II. IA practice How has the job of the web administrator has changed over time Several years ago, a webmaster would Plan and develop the site Design web pages Hand code HTML Write scripts and programs Create content Configure, maintain, and secure the web server Today, these tasks are a smaller part of the job http://www.boyscouttroop261.org/webmaster.jpg

These days Coders mark up the pages Content developers write the pages Graphic designers create the images Programmers and database designers manage the back end Technicians configure, maintain, and secure the computer equipment http://jceo.org/_uploads/web%20team.jpg

And the web site administrator Describes how the site should be organized Describes what a web site ought to look like Explains how it integrates into an overall management or marketing strategy Manages web designers and developers The job has evolved into more of a management position What has it become?

These days most large scale information design projects are done by teams In the team, the IA plays a key role IAs are deeply involved in web design but can work with any type of information design project Software, game design, educational CDs It is a professional role in web design and the design of digital media collections IAs are responsible for developing and selling the overall structure and organization of the site

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The evolution of the web site development has been in the direction of greater specialization Content developer Managerial The company Graphic designer HTML coder Programmer Technical Database designer Information architect Conceptual

It is a professional role in web design and the design of digital media collections IAs are responsible for the overall structure and organization of the site Involves organizing a site s content into categories and creating an interface to support those categories Also designing navigation and searching systems to help people find and manage information A systematic, user-centered question-based process for creating digital products to communicate meaning and improve users performance

What should an IA know? LIS: information organization and access Computer science: programming and databases Usability engineering: how people use the site Graphic design: developing imagery to support the site s mission Writing: to explain to peers and decision makers Psychology: understanding the intended audience Marketing: developing the site so it can be sold to its intended audience

What else does an IA have to know? Interaction design: creation and maintenance of tasks and processes that users will encounter in an information space Project management: strategies, skills, and procedures to organize, lead and bring tasks to closure Content management: processes, policies, and procedures governing the creation and transfer of content Knowledge management: processes, policies, and procedures that govern the organization s use of its intellectual capital

What does an IA do? Planning: what are the main goals and strategy for the site? Given the constraints what can be done? What are the relevant content domains? How are these domains related to each other? What is the structure of these relationships? Designing: what arrangement best supports the structure and organizational requirements? Managing: what people, tools, resources are available?

Basic activities of IA Structuring information Data (facts and figures) to which we give meaning Knowledge: Internalized and interpreted information Structuring information spaces Levels of granularity of different elements Organizing content Arranging these elements into meaningful categories and establishing relations among them Labeling content and naming categories

A broad view of IA work It involves developing and communicating a holistic view of a web site It includes the overall social and technical structure of the site and the relationships among its elements It requires the classification of site goals and objectives IA places the web site into a larger social context How will it affect the work flow, communications patterns, and distribution of power in the organization? How will it appear to its users?

What IAs do: Illustrate key concepts or steps through graphics Design site maps Create metaphors to brand content and promote navigation Develop style and formatting templates for elements of information Conduct user analyses and test user experience Create scenarios and storyboards Build taxonomies and indices Dillon and Turnbull, 3

Becoming an information architect Versatility is important Expect to be a project manager, a designer or both Become familiar with the various tasks that must be accomplished by a web team Typically, IAs collaborate with a variety of people, [Garrett] notes, from marketing and design pros to business executives and customers. In some ways, they serve as the linchpin between various groups. Hoffmann, A. (2007) Information Architects: Web Builders with a Sales Bent http://career-advice.monster.com/job-industryprofiles/technology/information-architects/ home.aspx

In a typical project you can expect to: Gather information from end-users and stakeholders Design and conduct online surveys, interviews and the ethnographic technique of contextual inquiry and analysis Test the system in a manner with experts Run usability tests in the lab Encourage people to use the prototype Solicit feedback, analyze search logs and continually learn from personal interaction with employees requesting information and research

An IA helps clients define their Internet strategies Research, design, architect, develop and implement solutions that execute those strategies Typically involves defining and documenting a site s structure, navigation and interactivity Based on translating client business rules and user needs into web structures and processes The work becomes a blueprint contributing to the overall strategic direction, vision and scope of a project The IA works with user experience modelers to analyze and model user tasks and usage scenarios

Model development requires attending to several perspectives Content: features of the information space Users: the common tasks and uses of the data Organization: the constraints and requirements of stakeholders providing the data Technical: the most appropriate standards and technologies A workable model must balance internal organizational aspects (types of information and resources available) with external aspects (user and technical perspectives)

Checklist: a mechanism for reminding and prompting attention to issues or topics General: outlining the steps in a process Specific: listing detailed items to be addressed Find design problems early Manage and leverage software and hardware infrastructure Identify technology gaps Enable most productive use of information assets Downey, L. and Banerjee, S. (2011). Building an Information Architecture Checklist: Encouraging and Enabling IA from Infrastructure to the User Interface Architecture. Journal of Information Architecture 2(2)

Purpose: remind reviewers of pertinent areas and specific issues to be addressed during systems design IA checklists focus more on process, design, and design review Do not include issues of infrastructure, platform, services, technology, policy, and standards Exception: an informal search checklist Includes system architecture, performance, access control, relevance tuning, federated search and analytics

Purpose: remind reviewers of pertinent areas and specific issues to be addressed during systems design Focus on process, design, and design review Preparing and organizing information Architecture: structure and composition of repository, information collection or individual document Intelligence: content, metadata, categorization Accessing information Search and retrieval: querying information and obtaining matching results Findability: quality of being locatable or navigable

Revised checklist Information organization: Taxonomy, modeling, structure, semantics Information generation: content, user experience, system interface, scalability, standards Information integration: analytics, search, composition Information consumption: search, metrics, monitoring Information governance: stewardship, master data management, reuse, policy Information quality of service: security, availability, reliability, usefulness

Design of social space http://www.susqu.edu/campus_activities/images/social_space/blueprint.jpg

Design of information space http://www.prosight.com/files/screenshots/solutions-architecture-overview.jpg

Design of information space http://www.chathamanimalrescue.org/images/site2.gif

Another view http://www.mnsu.edu/its/web/wtf/categories1.jpg

Site map for DoD Information Analysis Centers http://iac.dtic.mil/site_map.html

UN Environment Division Technology, Industry and Economics Program: of http://www.uneptie.org/energy/site_map/index.htm

http://knowledgefoundry.unc.edu/webpage_for_russian/russian_content_map_v3_ch2.jpg

Prototypes An outline or storyboard of a functional prototype Could also be a working prototypes with HTML, Flash, Director, or PowerPoint Written reports A narrative description of the site linking it to organizational mission, messages, and marketing constraints Change management How will the site grow and change over time? What will be involved in maintenance?

To evaluate the visitor s experience, use search, access and error logs To check on search terms, where people go, and places where problems occur To evaluate the site Competitor analysis and comparison with previous versions Have typical visitors do card sorts to assess chunking Assess completeness of content and functionality: can you do what you are supposed to be able to do? Toub, S (2000). Evaluating information architecture: A practical guide for assessing web site organization. Argus Associates.

To evaluate the site Assess how the component parts are organized and interlinked Determine the parent-child relationships and look for similar siblings grouped together Determine degree of overlap among sections A good hierarchy has both high within-category similarity and low between-category similarity A bad one has too much overlap between categories This can be done by inspection

To evaluate the site Evaluate the labeling scheme How predictable are they? How well do they reflect major categories and labels used in the site s sector? How effective are they? Other criteria for evaluation Does the site use language that visitors can understand? How does the site handle errors?

Other criteria for evaluation How often does the navigation require that the visitor return to the home page to go elsewhere in the site? How effective is the use of icons? How well are the forms constructed? Is the design consistent throughout the site? How well do the help file, site map or other finding tools work? Is there a site map or other help function?

The elements of user experience: User-centered design for the web Garrett argues that IAs must attend to the elements of the user experience when designing a digital space The focus is on the five planes: strategy, scope, structure, skeleton and surface Goal: take all aspects of the user experience into account ~ What are three main design scenarios and what are the problems with each? ~ How can an IA understand user needs better than the users?

The key to a successful web site is a successful user experience This produces value in some way for the site s owners Increased sales, conversion rate, decreased abandonment The goal is to improve efficiency Helping them work faster or make fewer mistakes There is a conceptual framework that can be used to deconstruct the elements of the user experience Garrett, J.J. (2003). The elements of user experience: User-centered design for the web. Boston, MA: New Riders.

The planes of user experience The surface plane Web pages, text, images, multimedia + functionalities The skeleton plane Buttons, tabs, blocked out space (for text/images etc) The structure plane The hierarchical organization of the information chunks The scope plane The range of content on the site The strategy plane What the site is supposed to do

Garrett s model of the user experience Web as interface Web as hypertext http://www.cmsreview.com/resources/images/jjgelements.gif