Data and Computer Communications

Data and Computer Communications Chapter 17 Wireless LANs Eighth Edition by William Stallings

Overview of Wireless LANs use wireless transmission medium Wireless LAN were little used issues of high prices, low data rates, occupational safety concerns, & licensing requirements now addressed key application areas: LAN extension cross-building interconnect nomadic access ad hoc networking Chap17:2

Single Cell LAN Extension Chap17:3

Multi Cell LAN Extension Chap17:4

Cross-Building Interconnect connect LANs in nearby buildings point-to-point wireless link Not a LAN by itself connect bridges or routers Chap17:5

Nomadic Access link LAN hub & mobile data terminal laptop or notepad computer enable employee to transfer data from portable computer to server also useful in extended environment such as campus or cluster of buildings users move around with portable computers may wish access to servers on wired LAN Chap17:6

Infrastructure Wireless LAN Chap17:7

Ad Hoc Networking temporary peer-to-peer network Chap17:8

Wireless LAN Requirements throughput - efficient use wireless medium no of nodes - hundreds of nodes across multiple cells connection to backbone LAN - using control modules service area - 100 to 300 m low power consumption - for long battery life on mobiles transmission robustness and security collocated network operation license-free operation handoff/roaming dynamic configuration - addition, deletion, and relocation of end systems without disruption to users Chap17:9

Technology infrared (IR) LANs individual cell of IR LAN limited to single room IR light does not penetrate opaque walls spread spectrum LANs mostly operate in ISM (industrial, scientific, and medical) bands no Federal Communications Commission (FCC) licensing is required in USA Chap17:10

Infrared LANs constructed using infrared portion of spectrum strengths spectrum virtually unlimited hence high rates possible unregulated spectrum infrared shares some properties of visible light reflection covers room, walls isolate networks inexpensive and simple weaknesses background radiation, e.g. sunlight, indoor lighting power limited by concerns for eye safety and power consumption Chap17:11

Infrared LANs Transmission Techniques directed-beam IR point-to-point links range depends on power and focusing for indoor use can set up token ring LAN IR transceivers positioned so data circulates in ring omnidirectional single base station with line of sight to other stations acts as a multiport repeater other stations use directional beam to it diffused configuration stations focused / aimed at diffusely reflecting ceiling Chap17:12

Spread Spectrum LAN Configuration usually use multiple-cell arrangement adjacent cells use different center frequencies configurations: hub connected to wired LAN connect to stations on wired LAN and in other cells may do automatic handoff peer-to-peer no hub MAC algorithm such as CSMA used to control access for ad hoc LANs Chap17:13

Spread Spectrum LANs Transmission Issues licensing regulations differ between countries USA FCC allows in ISM band: spread spectrum (1W), very low power (0.5W) 902-928 MHz (915-MHz band) 2.4-2.4835 GHz (2.4-GHz band) 5.725-5.825 GHz (5.8-GHz band) 2.4 GHz also in Europe and Japan interference many devices around 900 MHz: cordless telephones, wireless microphones, and amateur radio fewer devices at 2.4 GHz; microwave oven little competition at 5.8 GHz Chap17:14

IEEE 802 Standards Standard IEEE 802.11 IEEE 802.11a IEEE 802.11b IEEE 802.11c IEEE 802.11d IEEE 802.11e IEEE 802.11f IEEE 802.11g IEEE 802.11h IEEE 802.11i IEEE 802.11j IEEE 802.11k IEEE 802.11m IEEE 802.11n IEEE 802.11p IEEE 802.11r IEEE 802.11s IEEE 802.11,2 IEEE 802.11u Scope Medium access control (MAC): One common MAC for WLAN applications Physical layer: Infrared at 1 and 2 Mbps Physical layer: 2.4-GHz FHSS at 1 and 2 Mbps Physical layer: 2.4-GHz DSSS at 1 and 2 Mbps Physical layer: 5-GHz OFDM at rates from 6 to 54 Mbps Physical layer: 2.4-GHz DSSS at 5.5 and 11 Mbps Bridge operation at 802.11 MAC layer Physical layer: Extend operation of 802.11 WLANs to new regulatory domains (countries) MAC: Enhance to improve quality of service and enhance security mechanisms Recommended practices for multivendor access point interoperability Physical layer: Extend 802.11b to data rates >20 Mbps Physical/MAC: Enhance IEEE 802.11a to add indoor and outdoor channel selection and to improve spectrum and transmit power management MAC: Enhance security and authentication mechanisms Physical: Enhance IEEE 802.11a to conform to Japanese requirements Radio resource measurement enhancements to provide interface to higher layers for radio and network measurements Maintenance of IEEE 802.11-1999 standard with technical and editorial corrections Physical/MAC: Enhancements to enable higher throughput Physical/MAC: Wireless access in vehicular environments Physical/MAC: Fast roaming (fast BSS transition) Physical/MAC: ESS mesh networking Recommended practice for the Evaluation of 802.11 wireless performance Physical/MAC: Interworking with external networks Chap17:15

IEEE 802 Terminology Access point (AP) Basic service set (BSS) Coordination function Distribution system (DS) Extended service set (ESS) MAC protocol data unit (MPDU) MAC service data unit (MSDU) Station Any entity that has station functionality and provides access to the distribution system via the wireless medium for associated stations A set of stations controlled by a single coordination function The logical function that determines when a station operating within a BSS is permitted to transmit and may be able to receive PDUs A system used to interconnect a set of BSSs and integrated LANs to create an ESS A set of one or more interconnected BSSs and integrated LANs that appear as a single BSS to the LLC layer at any station associated with one of these BSSs The unit of data exchanged between two peer MAC entites using the services of the physical layer Information that is delivered as a unit between MAC users Any device that contains an IEEE 802.11 conformant MAC and physical layer Chap17:16

IEEE 802.11 Architecture Chap17:17

IEEE 802.11 - BSS basic service set (BSS) building block may be isolated may connect to backbone distribution system (DS) through access point (AP) BSS generally corresponds to cell DS can be switch, wired network, or wireless network have independent BSS (IBSS) with no AP Chap17:18

Extended Service Set (ESS) possible configurations: simplest is each station belongs to single BSS can have two BSSs overlap a station can participate in more than one BSS association between station and BSS dynamic ESS is two or more BSS interconnected by DS appears as single logical LAN to LLC Chap17:19

IEEE 802 Services Service Provider Used to support Association Distribution system MSDU delivery Authentication Station LAN access and security Deauthentication Station LAN access and security Dissassociation Distribution Integration Distribution system Distribution system Distribution system MSDU delivery MSDU delivery MSDU delivery MSDU delivery Station MSDU delivery Privacy Station LAN access and security Reassocation Distribution system MSDU delivery Chap17:20

Services - Message Distribution distribution service primary service used by stations to exchange MAC frames when frame must traverse DS if stations in same BSS, distribution service logically goes through single AP of that BSS integration service enables transfer of data between 802.11 LAN station and one on an integrated 802.x LAN Chap17:21

Association Related Services DS requires info about stations within ESS provided by association-related services station must associate before communicating 3 mobility transition types: no transition - stationary or in single BSS BSS transition - between BSS in same ESS ESS transition: between BSS in different ESS Chap17:22

Association Related Services DS needs identity of destination statio stations must maintain association with AP within current BSS 3 services relate to this requirement: Association - establishes initial association between station and AP Reassociation - to transfer an association to another AP Disassociation - by station or AP Chap17:23

Medium Access Control MAC layer covers three functional areas reliable data delivery access control security Chap17:24

Reliable Data Delivery 802.11 physical / MAC layers unreliable noise, interference, and other propagation effects result in loss of frames even with error-correction codes, frames may not successfully be received can be dealt with at a higher layer, e.g. TCP more efficient to deal with errors at MAC level 802.11 includes frame exchange protocol station receiving frame returns acknowledgment (ACK) frame exchange treated as atomic unit if no ACK within short period of time, retransmit Chap17:25

Four Frame Exchange can use four-frame exchange for better reliability source issues a Request to Send (RTS) frame to dest destination responds with Clear to Send (CTS) after receiving CTS, source transmits data destination responds with ACK RTS alerts all stations within range of source that exchange is under way CTS alerts all stations within range of destination other stations don t transmit to avoid collision RTS/CTS exchange is required function of MAC but may be disabled Chap17:26

Media Access Control Chap17:27

Media Access Control Distributed Coordination Function (DCF) The fundamental access method for the 802.11 MAC, known as Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). Shall be implemented in ALL stations and APs. Used within both ad hoc and infrastructure configurations. Chap17:28

Media Access Control Point Coordination Function (PCF) An alternative access method Shall be implemented on top of the DCF A point coordinator (polling master) is used to determine which station currently has the right to transmit Shall be built up from the DCF through the use of an access priority mechanism Chap17:29

Distributed Coordination Function DCF sublayer uses CSMA if station has frame to send it listens to medium if medium idle, station may transmit else waits until current transmission complete no collision detection since on wireless network DCF includes delays that act as a priority scheme Chap17:30

IEEE 802.11 Medium Access Control Logic Chap17:31

Priority IFS Values SIFS (short IFS) for all immediate response actions (see later) PIFS (point coordination function IFS) used by the centralized controller in PCF scheme when issuing polls DIFS (distributed coordination function IFS) used as minimum delay for asynchronous frames contending for access Chap17:32

SIFS Use SIFS gives highest priority over stations waiting PIFS or DIFS time SIFS used in following circumstances: Acknowledgment (ACK) station responds with ACK after waiting SIFS gap for efficient collision detect & multi-frame transmission Clear to Send (CTS) station ensures data frame gets through by issuing RTS and waits for CTS response from destination Poll response see Point coordination Function (PCF) discussion next Chap17:33

PIFS and DIFS Use PIFS used by centralized controller for issuing polls has precedence over normal contention traffic but not SIFS DIFS used for all ordinary asynchronous traffic Chap17:34

IEEE 802.11 MAC Timing Basic Access Method Chap17:35

Distribution coordination function CSMA Carrier sense Medium Access Hidden Terminal Problem A hears B C hears B B hears A and C A B C A B C Chap17:36

A B C Station A can communicate only with B. Station B can communicate with stations A and C. Station C can communicate only with B. The frame from A to B can be corrupted by a transmission initiated by station C. The station C may not know the ongoing transmission from A to B. Chap17:37

Solution RTS-CTS exchange: RTS = request to send CTS = clear to send problem: high overhead for short frames RTS A B C D CTS CTS A B C D data A B C D Chap17:38

Wireless LAN 802.11 CSMA/CA A B C A RTS B CTS DATA ACK Chap17:39

Wireless LAN 802.11 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance) Node A first sends Request To Send(RTS) packet indicating when and how much data it would like to send Node B sends back a Clear To Send (CTS) packet with the amount of data and the time of transmission back to node A Expose Terminal Problem Chap17:40

Wireless LAN 802.11 Expose Terminal Problem A B C Chap17:41

RTS / CTS (1/4) Contain a Duration/ID field Defines the period of time that the medium is to be reserved to transmit the actual data frame and the returning ACK frame A virtual carrier-sense mechanism is referred to as the Network Allocation Vector (NAV) maintains a prediction of future traffic on the medium based on duration information that is announced in RTS/CTS frame prior to the actual exchange of data The carrier-sense mechanism combines the NAV state and the STA s transmitter status with physical carrier sense to determine the busy/idle state of the medium Chap17:42

RTS / CTS (2/4) Carrier Sense shall be performed through two ways: physical carrier sensing: provided by the PHY virtual carrier sensing: provided by MAC by sending medium reservation through RTS and CTS frames duration field in these frames The use of RTS/CTS is under control of RTS_Threshold. A NAV (Network Allocation Vector) is calculated to estimate the amount of medium busy time in the future. Chap17:43

RTS / CTS (3/4) RTS Frame MAC Header CTS Frame MAC Header Frame Control Duration RA TA FCS Frame Control Duration RA FCS RTS (request-to-send) Frame RA: the addr. of the STA that is the intended immediate recipient of the pending directed data or management frame TA: the addr. of the STA transmitting the RTS frame Duration: T(pkt.) + T(CTS) + T(ACK) + 3 * SIFS CTS (clear-to-send) Frame RA: is taken from the TA field of the RTS frame. Duration: T(pkt.) + T(ACK) + 2 * SIFS Chap17:44

RTS / CTS (4/4) IEEE 802.11 only supports RTS-CTS in an optional basis: only stations wishing to use this mechanism will do so but stations need to be able to respond appropriately in reception Cannot used for MPDUs with broadcast and multicast address Chap17:45

Example of Backoff Intervals (2) (3) Backoff=2 DIFS DIFS Backoff=9 DIFS Backoff=4 DIFS (5) Station 1 busy Packet arrival at MAC Station 2 Station 3 Station 4 (1) busy Backoff=5 Backoff=7 busy Backoff=2 (4) busy (1) After packet arrival at MAC, station 3 senses medium free for DIFS, so it starts transmission immediately (without backoff interval). (2) For station 1,2, and 4, their DIFS intervals are interrupted by station 3. Thus, backoff intervals for station 1,2, and 4, are generated randomly (i.e. 9,5, and 7, respectively). (3) After transmission of station 2, the remaining backoff interval of station 1 is (9-5)=4. (4) After transmission of station 2, the remaining backoff interval of station 4 is (7-5)=2. (5) After transmission of station 4, the remaining backoff interval of station 1 is (4-2)=2. Chap17:46

Point Coordination Function (PCF) alternative access method implemented on top of DCF polling by centralized polling master (point coordinator) uses PIFS when issuing polls point coordinator polls in round-robin to stations configured for polling when poll issued, polled station may respond using SIFS if point coordinator receives response, it issues another poll using PIFS if no response during expected turnaround time, coordinator issues poll coordinator could lock out async traffic by issuing polls have a superframe interval defined Chap17:47

PCF Superframe Timing Chap17:48

Point Coordination Frame TBTT Transfer Contention-free period (CFP) repetition interval PIFS SIFS SIFS SIFS SIFS SIFS B D1+ D1+ACK Poll +Poll U1+ ACK U2+ ACK CF End Reset NAV Contention period NAV CF_Max_duration TBTT: Target beacon transmission time D1, D2: frames sent by point coordinator U1, U2: frames sent by polled station B: beacon frame (sent by AP) CFP repetition interval (CFP_Rate) determines the frequency with which the PCF occurs. The PCF is required to coexist with the DCF. Chap17:49

IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame Format Frame Control MAC Header 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4 位元組 Duration/ ID Addr 1 Addr 2 Addr 3 Sequence Control Addr 4 資料 FCS Frame Control Protocol Version Type Subtype To DS From DS More Flag Retry Power Mang. More Data WEP Rsvd 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 位元 Chap17:50

IEEE 802.11 MAC Frame Format 2 2 6 6 6 2 6 0-2312 4 Frame control Duration/ ID Address 1 Address 2 Address 3 Sequence control Address 4 Frame body FCS (CRC) 2 2 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Protocol version Type Subtype To DS From DS More frag Retry Pwr mgt More data WEP order 0, for Current version of the std. 00:mgt 01:control 10:data 11:rsvd 0, last frag. of the data or mgt. frame. Control frames are not fraged. 1, the frame is a retransmission. 0, the station is in active mode. 1, the station will enter pwr mgt mode. (no more communication). Must be the same value for a single frame exchange.(2-way or 4- way) 1, to indicate to a STA in power-save mode that more MSDUs, or MMPDUs are buffered for that STA at the AP. 1, the frame body is encrypted (only for data frames or mgt. frames of subtype authentication. ) Chap17:51

Power Save-Poll (PS-Poll) Control Frames request AP transmit buffered frame when in power-saving mode Request to Send (RTS) first frame in four-way frame exchange Clear to Send (CTS) second frame in four-way exchange Acknowledgment (ACK) Contention-Free (CF)-end announces end of contention-free period part of PCF CF-End + CF-Ack: acknowledges CF-end to end contention-free period and release stations from associated restrictions Chap17:52

Data Frames Data Carrying eight data frame subtypes, in two groups first four carry upper-level data Data simplest data frame, contention or contention-free use Data + CF-Ack carries data and acknowledges previously received data during contention-free period Data + CF-Poll used by point coordinator to deliver data & req send Data + CF-Ack + CF-Poll combines Data + CF-Ack and Data + CF-Poll Chap17:53

Data Frames Not Data Carrying other four data frames do not carry user data Null Function carries no data, polls, or acknowledgments carries power mgmt bit in frame control field to AP indicates station is changing to low-power state other three frames (CF-Ack, CF-Poll, CF-Ack + CF-Poll) same as corresponding frame in preceding list but without data Chap17:54

Management Frames used to manage communications between stations and Aps such as management of associations requests, response, reassociation, dissociation, and authentication Chap17:55

802.11 Physical Layer Available bandwidth Unlicensed frequency of operation Number of nonoverlapping channels Data rate per channel 802.11 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 83.5 MHz 300 MHz 83.5 MHz 83.5 MHz 2.4-2.4835 GHz DSSS, FHSS 3 (indoor/outdoor) 1, 2 Mbps 5.15-5.35 GHz OFDM 5.725-5.825 GHz OFDM 4 indoor 4 (indoor/outdoor) 4 outdoor 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbps 2.4-2.4835 GHz DSSS 3 (indoor/outdoor) 1, 2, 5.5, 11 Mbps Compatibility 802.11 Wi-Fi5 Wi-Fi 2.4-2.4835 GHz DSSS, OFDM 3 (indoor/outdoor) 1, 2, 5.5, 6, 9, 11, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54 Mbps Wi-Fi at 11 Mbps and below Chap17:56

Original 802.11 Physical Layer - DSSS Direct-sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) 2.4 GHz ISM band at 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps up to seven channels, each 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps, can be used depends on bandwidth allocated by various national regulations 13 in most European countries one in Japan each channel bandwidth 5 MHz encoding scheme DBPSK for 1-Mbps and DQPSK for 2-Mbps using an 11-chip Barker seq Chap17:57

Original 802.11 Physical Layer - FHSS Frequency-hopping spread spectrum 2.4 GHz ISM band at 1 Mbps and 2 Mbps 23 channels in Japan 70 channels in USA signal hopping between multiple channels based on a pseudonoise sequence 1-MHz channels are used hopping scheme adjustable two-level Gaussian FSK modulation for 1 Mbps four-level GFSK modulation used for 2 Mbps Chap17:58

Original 802.11 Physical Layer Infrared omnidirectional range up to 20 m 1 Mbps uses 16-PPM (pulse position modulation) 4 data bit group mapped to one of 16-PPM symbols each symbol a string of 16 bits each 16-bit string has fifteen 0s and one binary 1 2-Mbps has each group of 2 data bits is mapped into one of four 4-bit sequences each sequence consists of three 0s and one binary 1 intensity modulation is used for transmission Chap17:59

802.11b extension of 802.11 DS-SS scheme with data rates of 5.5 and 11 Mbps chipping rate 11 MHz same as original DS-SS scheme Complementary Code Keying (CCK) modulation gives higher data rate with same bandwidth & chipping rate also Packet Binary Convolutional Coding (PBCC) for future higher rate use Chap17:60

802.11g higher-speed extension to 802.11b operates in 2.4GHz band compatible with 802.11b devices combines physical layer encoding techniques used in 802.11 and 802.11b to provide service at a variety of data rates ERP-OFDM for 6, 9, 12, 18, 24, 36, 48, 54Mbps rates ERP-PBCC for 22 & 33Mbps rates Chap17:61

Data Rate vs Distance (m) Data Rate (Mbps) 802.11b 802.11a 802.11g 1 90+ 90+ 2 75 75 5.5(b)/6(a/g) 60 60+ 65 9 50 55 11(b)/12(a/g) 50 45 50 18 40 50 24 30 45 36 25 35 48 15 25 54 10 20 Chap17:62

Access and Privacy Services - Authentication authentication used to establish station identity wired LANs assume physical connection gives authority to use LAN not a valid assumption for wireless LANs 802.11 supports several authentication schemes does not mandate any particular scheme from relatively insecure handshaking to public-key encryption 802.11 requires mutually acceptable, successful authentication before association Chap17:63

Access and Privacy Services Deauthentication & Privacy Deauthentication invoked whenever an existing authentication is to be terminated Privacy used to prevent messages being read by others 802.11 allows optional use of encryption original WEP security features were weak subsequently 802.11i and WPA alternatives evolved giving better security Chap17:64

Summary wireless LAN alternatives IEEE 802.11 architecture and services 802.11 Medium Access Control 802.11 Physical Layers 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, 802.11g Chap17:65