HS Pre-Algebra Notes Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Triangles, Quadrilaterals, and Polygons Syllabus Objectives: (5.6) The student will classify polygons. (5.5) The student will validate conclusions about geometric figures and their properties. Take this opportunity to review vocabulary and previous knowledge about angle measures for triangles it is a good place to fill in any gaps in student knowledge. Students should know: The sum of the angles measure of any triangle is 80. This can be shown with a quick demonstration: ) Draw and label a large triangle as shown. a ) Cut the triangle out. ) Tear each angle from the triangle and place them so their vertices meet at a point. c b a a b c b c 4) The angles form a straight line: 80. acute triangle acute angles right triangle right angle obtuse triangle obtuse angle equiangular triangle congruent angles equilateral triangle congruent sides isosceles triangle at least congruent sides scalene triangle no congruent sides A tree diagram could also be used to show the relationships. Tree Diagram for Triangles triangles acute right obtuse scalene isosceles scalene isosceles scalene isosceles equilateral McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page of Revised 0 - CCSS
This vocabulary can be very important when tackling some word problems. Example: The ratio of the angle measures in a triangle is ::5. Classify the triangle by its angle measures. Since we know there will be a common factor to multiply each of the angles, we can let x, x and 5x represent the angle measures. We also know that the sum of the angle measures of a triangle is 80. So x x5x 80 0x 80 x 8 Substituting 8 into each of the expressions, x 8 x 8 5x 58 6 = 54 90 Since the measure of the largest angle is 90, we know that we have a right triangle. A polygon is defined as a closed geometric figure formed by connecting line segments endpoint to endpoint. Polygons Not Polygons It is considered a convex polygon if no segment connecting two vertices is outside the polygon. A concave polygon is one in which at least one segment connecting two vertices is outside the polygon. In discussions using the word polygon, it is usually understood to mean a convex polygon. Have students make sketches of examples of each. You may want to discuss that you have a cave in concave figures. Convex Polygons Concave Polygons McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page of Revised 0 - CCSS
A regular polygon is one in which all the sides are of equal length and all the angles have the same measure. Examples: Regular pentagon with all sides and all angles congruent B A C Not a regular polygon as only sides are congruent. Note: When labeling geometric figures, mark angles and segments that are equal in measure with similar marks. For example, in the pentagon all the angles are marked equal with an arc with one slash and the sides marked equal with one slash. In triangle ABC, the measure of AB and AC are shown equal with two slashes. Polygons are named by the number of sides. We know a triangle has sides. Below are the names of other polygons. Polygons Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon Nonagon Decagon # of sides 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 Have you ever had a problem with drawing a polygon? Many times we end up with everything bunched at the end, or not a polygon. Here is a suggestion to more easily draw a polygon:. Lightly draw a circle.. Place points on the circle to represent the endpoints of the segments of the polygon you wish to create.. Connect the points to create your polygon. 4. Erase the circle. You have your polygon! McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page of Revised 0 - CCSS
Quadrilaterals are further classified; names are based on congruent sides, parallel sides and right angles. Quadrilateral Type Definition Example >> Parallelogram Quadrilateral with both pairs of opposite sides parallel. >> Rhombus Parallelogram with four congruent sides. Note: This polygon is a parallelogram. Rectangle Parallelogram with four right angles. Note: This polygon is a parallelogram. Square Parallelogram with four right angles and four congruent sides. Note: This polygon is a parallelogram. Trapezoid Quadrilateral with exactly one pair of parallel sides. >> >> Another way to show the relationship of the parallelograms is to complete a Venn diagram as shown below. parallelograms rectangles squares rhombi Again, vocabulary will become very important when trying to solve word problems. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 4 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: A quadrilateral has both pairs of opposite sides parallel. One set of opposite angles are congruent and acute. The other set of angles is congruent and obtuse. All four sides are NOT congruent. Which name below best classifies this figure? A. parallelogram B. rectangle C. rhombus D. trapezoid We have both pairs of opposite sides parallel, so it cannot be the trapezoid. Since the angles are not 90 in measure, we can rule out the rectangle. We are told that the 4 sides are not congruent, so it cannot be the rhombus. Therefore, we have a parallelogram. We have looked at classifying quadrilaterals, but what about their angle measure? We can take this opportunity to get students thinking of how many degrees exist in the sum of the interior angles of a quadrilateral (saving the next extension to all polygons for a later unit Chapter ). Make a drawing of any quadrilateral. Draw all the diagonals from one vertex. (For a quadrilateral, there is only one diagonal from any vertex.) We now have triangles. Since we know that the angle measure in each triangle is 80, we can conjecture that the sum of the angle measures in a quadrilateral is 80 + 80 = 60. Example: Find the value of x in the figure. 80 70 90 x 60 sum of the angle measures in a quadrilateral is 60 x 60 combine like terms x 0 subtract 40 from eachside The missing angle x would have a measure of 0. x 80 70 McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 5 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Perimeter Syllabus Objective: (5.7) The student will find the perimeter of polgons. The perimeter of a polygon is the sum of the lengths of the segments that make up the sides of the polygon. m Example: Find the perimeter of the regular pentagon. Since the pentagon is regular, we know all five sides have a measurement of meters. So we simply multiply 5 for an answer of 0 meters for the perimeter. Example: The perimeter of an isosceles triangle is 4 feet. The length of the base (not one of the congruent sides) is feet. What are the lengths of the other sides? An isosceles triangle has at least equal sides (by definition). A sketch often helps. We know the base is not one of the equal sides; we can label the unknown lengths as x and determine an equation to solve. x x 4 x 4 x 0 x 5 The lengths of the other two sides are 5 feet. Example: Find the perimeter of the figure below. Classify the quadrilateral. x ' x 4 ft > 6 ft»» > Since both pairs of opposite sides are parallel and all 4 angles are right angles, we have a rectangle. The opposite sides are also equal, so P 6 4 6 4 or 40. The figure is a rectangle and it has a perimeter of 40 feet. Note with students that the units are being added and are therefore not squared or cubed. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 6 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Area of Parallelograms, Triangles and Trapezoids Syllabus Objective: (5.7) The student will find the area of polygons. One way to describe the size of a room is by naming its dimensions. A room that measures ft. by 0 ft. would be described by saying it s a by 0 foot room. That s easy enough. There is nothing wrong with that description. In geometry, rather than talking about a room, we might talk about the size of a rectangular region. For instance, let s say I have a closet with dimensions feet by 6 feet. That s the size of the closet. ft 6 ft Someone else might choose to describe the closet by determining how many one foot by one foot tiles it would take to cover the floor. To demonstrate, let me divide that closet into one foot squares. ft By simply counting the number of squares that fit inside that region, we find there are squares. If I continue making rectangles of different dimensions, I would be able to describe their size by those dimensions, or I could mark off units and determine how many equally sized squares can be made. Rather than describing the rectangle by its dimensions or counting the number of squares to determine its size, we could multiply its dimensions together. Putting this into perspective, we see the number of squares that fits inside a rectangular region is referred to as the area. A shortcut to determine that number of squares is to multiply the base by the height. The area of a rectangle is equal to the product of the length of the base and the length of a height to that base. 6 ft That is A bh. Most books refer to the longer side of a rectangle as the length (l), the shorter side as the width (w). That results in the formula A lw. The answer in an area problem is always given in square units because we are determining how many squares fit inside the region. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 7 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: Find the area of a rectangle with the dimensions m by m. A lw A A 6 The area of the rectangle is 6 m. Example: Find the area of the rectangle. 9 ft yd Be careful! Area of a rectangle is easy to find, and students may quickly multiply to get an answer of 8. This is wrong because the measurements are in different units. We must first convert feet into yards, or yards into feet. yards x feet 9 9 x x We now have a rectangle with dimensions yd. by yd. The area of our rectangle is 6 square yards. A lw A A 6 If I were to cut one corner of a rectangle and place it on the other side, I would have the following: height height base base We now have a parallelogram. Notice, to form a parallelogram, we cut a piece of a rectangle from one side and placed it on the other side. Do you think we changed the area? The answer is no. All we did was rearrange it; the area of the new figure, the parallelogram, is the same as the original rectangle. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 8 of Revised 0 - CCSS
So we have the area of a parallelogram = bh. h b Example: The height of a parallelogram is twice the base. If the base of the parallelogram is meters, what is its area? First, find the height. Since the base is meters, the height would be twice that or () or 6 m. To find the area, A bh A 6 A 8 The area of the parallelogram is 8 m. Standardized testing (CRT and NHSPE included) often ask students to address what will happen to a value for the area when dimensions are changed. Let s look at an example. Syllabus Objective: (5.4) The student will describe how changes in the value of one variable effect the values of the remaining variables in a relationship. Using graph paper, draw rectangles with the following dimensions: by units, by 4 units, and 4 by 8 units. Determine the perimeter and area for all rectangles. P = + + + P = 6 units A = bh A = A = units P = + 4 + + 4 P = units A bh A 4 A 8 units P 4848 P 4 units A bh A 48 A units When you double the base and the height, what happens to the perimeter? (doubles) Area? (quadruples) McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 9 of Revised 0 - CCSS
When you quadruple the base and the height, what happens to the perimeter? (quadruples) Area? (6 times) How might you show this relationship for area algebraically? A bh if both base and height are doubled : Abh A 4bh The new area is 4 times the original area. We have established that the area of a parallelogram is A bh. Let s see how that helps us to understand the area formula for a triangle and trapezoid. h base h base For this parallelogram, its base is 4 units and its height is units. Therefore, the area is 4 units. If we draw a diagonal, it cuts the parallelogram into triangles. That means one triangle would have one-half of the area or 6 units. Note the base and height stay the same. So for a triangle, A bh, or 4 6 units h base h b b b b base Note: formula often rewritten as: A h ( b b ) For this parallelogram, its base is 8 units and its height is units. Therefore, the area is 8 6 units. If we draw a line strategically, we can cut the parallelogram into congruent trapezoids. One trapezoid would have an area of one-half of the parallelogram s area (8 units ). Height remains the same. The base would be written as the sum of b and b. For a trapezoid: A bbh, or 6 8 units McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 0 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Circles: Circumference and Area Syllabus Objectives: (5.8) The student will find the circumference and area of circles. A circle is defined as all points in a plane that are equal distance (called the radius) from a fixed point (called the center of the circle). The distance across the circle, through the center, is called the diameter. Therefore, a diameter is twice the length of the radius, or d r. We called the distance around a polygon the perimeter. The distance around a circle is called the circumference. There is a special relationship between the circumference and the diameter of a circle. Let s get a visual to approximate that relationship. Take a can with tennis balls in it. Wrap a string around the can to approximate the circumference of a tennis ball. Then compare that measurement with the height of the can (which represents three diameters). You will discover that the circumference of the can is greater than the three diameters (height of the can). You can make an exercise for students to discover an approximation for this circumference/diameter relationship which we call π. Have students take several circular objects, measure the circumference (C) and the diameter (d). Have students determine C d for each object; have groups average their results. Again, they should arrive at answers a little bigger than. This should help convince students that this ratio will be the same for every circle. C We can then introduce that π d or C πd. Since d r, we can also write C π r. Please note that π is an irrational number (never ends or repeats). Mathematicians use to represent the exact value of the circumference/diameter ratio. Using the formula: C πd C (.4)(4) C.56 The circumference is about.6 meters. Example: If a circle has a diameter of 4 m, what is the circumference? Use.4 to approximate π. State your answer to the nearest 0. meter. Many standardized tests (including the CRT and the district common exams) ask students to leave their answers in terms of π. Be sure to practice this! Example: If a circle has a radius of 5 feet, find its circumference. Do not use an approximation for π. C πr Using the formula: C π 5 C 0π The circumference is about 0π feet. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: If a circle has a circumference of π inches, what is the radius? Using the formula: C πr π πr π πr π π 6 r The radius is 6 inches. Example: A circle has a circumference of 4 m. Using π.4, find the diameter. Round your answer to the nearest whole number. Using the formula: C πd 4 (.4) d 4 (.4) d.4.4 7.6 d The diameter is about 8 meters. You can demonstrate the formula for finding the area of a circle. First, draw a circle; cut it out. Fold it in half; fold in half again. Fold in half two more times, creating 6 wedges when you unfold the circle. Cut along these folds. Rearrange the wedges, alternating the pieces tip up and down (as shown), to look like a parallelogram. radius (r) This is ½ of the distance around the circle or ½ of C. We know that C π r, so C π r C πr McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page of Revised 0 - CCSS
The more wedges we cut, the closer it would approach the shape of a parallelogram. No area has been lost (or gained). Our parallelogram has a base of πr and a height of r. We know from our previous discussion that the area of a parallelogram is bh. So we now have the area of a circle: A bh A (π r)( r) A πr πr radius (r) Example: Find the area of the circle to the nearest square meter if the radius of the circle is m. Use.4. Using the formula: A πr A (.4)() A 45.6 The area of the circle is about 45 square meters. Example: Find the area of the circle if the radius is 0 inches. Leave your answer in terms of π. Using the formula: A πr A π 0 A 00π The area of the circle is 00π square inches. Example: If the area of a circle is 49 square meters, find the radius. Using the formula: A πr 49 r 49 r 49 r 7 r The radius of the circle is about 7 meters. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: The dimensions of a church window are shown below. Find the area of the window to the nearest square foot. First, find the area of the rectangle. A bh A 08 A 80 Next, we have half of a circle. We are given the diameter, so the radius would be half of the 0 feet or 5 feet. To find the area of half of a circle with radius 5, π A r A.4 5 A 9.5 0 feet 8 feet To find the total area we add the two areas we found: 80 + 9.5 9.5 The area of the church window is about 9 square feet. Surface Area Syllabus Objective: (5.9) The student will find the surface area of prisms, cylinders, pyramids and cones. The surface area of a solid is the sum of the areas of all the surfaces that enclose that solid. To find the surface area, draw a diagram of each surface as if the solid was cut apart and laid flat. Label each part with the dimensions. Calculate the area for each surface. Find the total surface area by adding the areas of all of the surfaces. If some of the surfaces are the same, you can save time by calculating the area of one surface and multiplying by the number of identical surfaces. As a class activity, you may want to take common boxes (ie. cereal box, etc.) to have students actually cut apart the solids and lay them flat. An oatmeal container can be used to illustrate what the cylinder looks like when it is flattened. You could use a paper towel or toilet paper cardboard roll to quickly show how the lateral surface of a cylinder flattens into a rectangle. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 4 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: Find the surface area of the prism shown. All surfaces are rectangles. 4 cm 5 cm cm Divide the prism into its parts. Label the dimensions. Bases Lateral Faces top 5 4 front 5 4 side bottom 5 4 back 4 side 5 Find the area of all the surfaces. Bases A bh A 5 A 0 A bh A 5 A 0 A bh A 5 4 A 60 A bh A 5 4 A 60 Lateral Faces A bh A 4 A 8 A bh A 4 A 8 Surface Area = 0 + 0 + 60 + 60 + 8 + 8 = 96 The surface area of the prism is 96 cm. Note: Since some of the faces were identical, we could multiply by instead of adding the value twice. That work would look like Surface Area = (0) + (60) + (8) = 60 + 0 + 6 = 96 McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 5 of Revised 0 - CCSS
We need to define the three-dimensional figures with which we will be working. cylinder: a solid with two congruent circular bases that lie in parallel planes. prism: a solid formed by two parallel polygonal congruent bases that lie in parallel planes the other faces are rectangles. pyramid: a solid whose base may be any polygon, with the other faces triangles. cone: a solid with one circular base. Example: Find the surface area of the cylinder shown (to the nearest meter). 9 m 5 m Circumference of the circle 5 4.5 C = πd (.4)(9) 8.6 The bases are identical. The area of one circle would be A πr A.4)(4.5 A 6.585 Therefore, the area for both circles would be (6.585) or 7.7 The area of the lateral surface would be: A bh A 8.65 A 4. Surface area =7.7 + 4. = 68.47 The surface area of the cylinder is about 68 m. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 6 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: Find the surface area of the square pyramid shown (to the nearest inch). slant height: 8 in in 8 in 0 in in in The area of the base would be 44. The area of one of the lateral faces would be But since there are 4 lateral faces, 4(48) = 9. This is the surface area of the lateral faces. bl bl bl bl lbbbb l perimeter A bh A 8 A 48 Surface area would be 44 + 9 = 6. The surface area of the square-based pyramid is 6 square inches. Finding the surface area of a cone is related to finding the surface area of a pyramid. To find the lateral area of the square pyramid, we took the sum of the four triangles that made up the lateral surface. If we wished to find the surface area of hexagonal pyramid, we would find the sum of the areas of the six triangles. What if we wanted to use a pyramid with regular polygonal base of 00 sides? 000 sides? What would this polygon begin to look like? As the number of sides of a regular polygon increases, the polygon s shape approaches that of a circle. As the number of faces increases, the lateral faces shapes would approach that of a cone. We do not want to confuse the slant height of a pyramid with the actual height of the pyramid, so we use the variable l rather than h for slant height. The lateral surface area of the square pyramid can be shown as: Lateral surface area in b l For the cone, we will substitute circumference for perimeter, and get Lateral surface area for a cone = lc l (π r ) π rl So to find the surface area of a cone is the sum of the area of the base ( A πr ) and the lateral surface area, or surface area of a cone : πr π rl. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 7 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: Find the surface area of the cone. Leave your answer in terms of π. Using the formula: S πr πrl π π 8 9π 4π π The surface area of the cone is π cm. cm 8 cm Volume Syllabus Objective 5.9: The student will find the volume of prisms, cylinders, pyramids and cones. CCSS 8.G.9-: Know the formulas for the volumes of cones, cylinders, and spheres. CCSS 8.G.9-: Use the formulas for the volumes of cones, cylinders, and spheres. If you were to buy dirt for your yard, it s typically sold in cubic yards that s describing volume. If you were laying a foundation for a house or putting in a driveway, you d want to buy cement, and cement is often sold by the cubic yard. Carpenters, painters and plumbers all use volume relationships. m m The volume of a three dimensional figure measures how many cubes will fit inside it. It s easy to find the volume of a solid if it is a rectangular prism with whole number dimensions. Let s consider a figure m x m x 4 m. m m We can count the cubes measuring meter on an edge. The bottom layer is x there are 6 square meter cubes on the bottom layer. We have three more layers stacked above it (for a total of 4 layers), or 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 4. 4 m m m Now we can reason that if I know how many cubes are in the first layer (6), then to find the total number of cubes in the stack, you simply multiply the number on the first layer by the height of the stack 64 4. This is a way of finding volume. We find the area of the base (B) and multiply it times the height (h) of the object. For prisms and cylinders, V Bh, where B is the area of the base and h is the height. Leaving the reasoning to a later course in geometry, we can also state that for McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 8 of Revised 0 - CCSS
pyramids and cones, V Bh, where B is the area of the base and h is the height. Example: Find the volume of the prism shown. 6 m 8 m 4 m The bases of the prism are the triangles, so to find the area of the base we will use the formula A bh. The height will be the distance between the two bases (4). We have: A Bh A 8 6 4 A 96 The volume of the triangular prism is 96 cubic meters. Example: Find the volume of a round chocolate cake that has a diameter of 4 cm and a height of 4 cm. Use as an approximation for π. 7 V Bh. Our base is a circle, so we will need the radius. The radius is one-half the r 4 or. We would now have V Bh V 4 7 V 66 diameter so The volume of the chocolate cake is 66 cubic centimeters. Example: Find the volume of the square pyramid. V Bh V V 84 8 in 8 in The volume of the square pyramid is 84 cubic inches. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 9 of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: Find the diameter of the cone if you know the volume of the cone is 8π cubic centimeters. V Bh 8 r 8 r 9 r r 8 r 6 Since the diameter is twice the radius, the diameter of the cone would be () or 6 cm. Example: The solid shown to the right is a cube with a cylindershaped hole in it. Find the volume of the solid. Round your answer to the nearest whole number. Use.4. Our plan will be to find the volume of the cube, then the volume of the cylinder. To find the volume of the solid, we will then subtract the cylinder s volume from that of the cube. 6 cm d = foot 5 feet V V V cube cube cube Bh 555 5 V V V cylinder cylinder cylinder Bh.40.5 5.95 V cube V 5.95 cylinder.075 The volume of the solid is approximately cubic feet. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page 0 of Revised 0 - CCSS
The Common Core State Standards includes finding the volume of a sphere. A sphere is a three-dimensional object that is formed by connecting all points that are a specified distance away from a single center point. Examples of spheres include marbles and soccer balls. The volume of a sphere is the amount of space enclosed by it. The volume is measured in three dimensions, so the answer must also be reported in cubic units, whether it be cubic centimeters, cubic inches, or cubic feet The formula for finding the volume of a sphere is V 4 r, where r is the radius. The radius is calculated by measuring the distance from one side of the sphere, through the center point, to the other side of the sphere, and dividing that measurement by two. You can also calculate the radius from the circumference by measuring the distance around the sphere at its widest point and dividing that by π. For example, if the circumference was.4 inches: C r.4 (.4) r.4 (.4) r.4.4 0 r 5 r The radius would be 5 inches. If the radius of the sphere is 5 inches: 4 V r 4 V.4 5 V 5. The volume of the sphere is approximately 5 inches cubed. The volume of a sphere can be applied to a number of real-life situations. For example, when manufacturers design a sports ball, such as a basketball or soccer ball, they must make sure that it meets the specifications of that sport. To do this, they determine how large the ball needs to be and then use the formula for the volume of the sphere to determine the dimensions. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page of Revised 0 - CCSS
Example: A tennis ball is a sphere with a diameter of about.5 inches. Determine its volume. To determine the radius, we must divide the.5 by. 4 V r 4.5 V.4 V 8. The volume of the tennis ball is approximately 8. cubic inches. Example: Find the volume of a sphere. 4 V r 4 V.4 V 998.06 The volume of the sphere is approximately 9,98 cubic feet. McDougal Littell, Chapter 0 HS Pre-Algebra Unit 0: Measurement, Area, and Volume Page of Revised 0 - CCSS