Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Based on the slides of Dr. Andrea Goldsmith, Stanford University and Dr. Dharma P. Agrawal, University of Cincinnati 1 Course Objectives: This course will cover the fundamental aspects of wireless networks, with emphasis on current and next-generation wireless networks. Various aspects of wireless networking will be covered including: fundamentals of cellular communication, mobile radio propagation, multiple access techniques, mobility support, channel allocation, Wireless PAN/LAN/MAN standards, mobile ad-hoc networks, wireless sensor networks, and routing in wireless and mobile networks. The goal of this course is to introduce the students to state-of-the-art wireless network protocols and architectures. We will introduce the students to wireless networking research and guide them to investigate novel ideas in the area via semester-long research projects. We will also look at industry trends and discuss some innovative ideas that have recently been developed. Some of the course material will be drawn from research papers, industry white papers and Internet RFCs. 2
Wireless History Ancient Systems: Smoke Signals, Carrier Pigeons, Radio invented in the 1880s by Marconi Many sophisticated military radio systems were developed during and after WW2 Cellular has enjoyed exponential growth since 1988, with almost 1 billion users worldwide today Ignited the recent wireless revolution 3G roll-out disappointing in Europe, nascent in US Asia way ahead of the rest of the world Much hype in 1990s, great failures around 2000 1G Wireless LANs/Iridium/Metricom 3 Exciting Developments Internet and laptop use exploding 2G/3G wireless LANs growing rapidly Huge cell phone popularity worldwide Emerging systems such as Bluetooth, UWB, Zigbee, and WiMAX opening new doors Military and security wireless needs Important interdisciplinary applications 4
Future Wireless Networks Ubiquitous Communication Among People and Devices Wireless Internet access Nth generation Cellular Wireless Ad Hoc Networks Sensor Networks Wireless Entertainment Smart Homes/Spaces Automated Highways All this and more Hard Delay Constraints Hard Energy Constraints 5 Design Challenges Wireless channels are a difficult and capacitylimited broadcast communications medium Traffic patterns, user locations, and network conditions are constantly changing Applications are heterogeneous with hard constraints that must be met by the network Energy and delay constraints change design principles across all layers of the protocol stack 6
Evolution of Current Systems Wireless systems today 2G Cellular: ~30-70 Kbps. WLANs: ~10 Mbps. Next Generation 3G Cellular: ~300 Kbps. WLANs: ~70 Mbps. Technology Enhancements Hardware: Better batteries. Better circuits/processors. Link: Antennas, modulation, coding, adaptivity, DSP, BW. Network: Dynamic resource allocation. Mobility support. Application: Soft and adaptive QoS. Current Systems on Steroids 7 Future Generations Rate 802.11b WLAN 3G 4G Other Tradeoffs: Rate vs. Coverage Rate vs. Delay Rate vs. Cost Rate vs. Energy 2G 2G Cellular Mobility Fundamental Design Breakthroughs Needed 8
Multimedia Requirements Delay Packet Loss BER Data Rate Traffic Voice Data Video <100ms - <100ms <1% 0 <1% 10-3 10-6 10-6 8-32 Kbps 1-100 Mbps 1-20 Mbps Continuous Bursty Continuous One-size-fits-all protocols and design do not work well Wired networks use this approach, with poor results 9 Wireless Performance Gap LOCAL AREA PACKET SWITCHING WIDE AREA CIRCUIT SWITCHING 100,000 100 M Ethernet ATM 100,000 ATM 10,000 1000 100 10 1 User Bit-Rate (kbps) Polling Packet Radio Ethernet FDDI wired- wireless bit-rate "gap" 1st gen WLAN 2nd gen WLAN 10,000 1000 100 10 1 User Bit-Rate (kbps) 2.4 modem 9.6 modem 28.8 modem 2.4 cellular ISDN 9.6 cellular wired- wireless bit-rate "gap" 14.4 digital cellular 32 kbps PCS.1.1.01 1970 1980 1990 2000 YEAR.01 1970 1980 1990 2000 YEAR 10
Quality-of-Service (QoS) QoS refers to the requirements associated with a given application, typically rate and delay requirements. It is hard to make a one-size-fits all network that supports requirements of different applications. Wired networks often use this approach with poor results, and they have much higher data rates and better reliability than wireless. QoS for all applications requires a cross-layer design approach. 11 Crosslayer Design Application Network Access Link Hardware Delay Constraints Rate Constraints Energy Constraints Channel-State Adapt across design layers Reduce uncertainty through scheduling Provide robustness via diversity
Current Wireless Systems Cellular Systems Wireless LANs Satellite Systems Bluetooth Ultrawideband radios Zigbee radios 13 Fundamentals of Cellular Systems Ideal cell area (2-10 km radius) Cell BS MS Alternative shape of a cell MS Hexagonal cell area used in most models Illustration of a cell with a mobile station and a base station 14
FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access) Frequency User n User 2 User 1 Time 15 FDMA Bandwidth Structure 1 2 3 4 n Frequency Total bandwidth 16
FDMA Channel Allocation User 1 User 2 User n Frequency 1 Frequency 2 Frequency n Mobile Stations Base Station 17 TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access) Frequency User 1 User 2 User n Time 18
TDMA Frame Structure 1 2 3 4 n Time Frame 19 TDMA Frame Illustration for Multiple Users User 1 Time 1 User 2 User n Time 2 Time n Mobile Stations Base Station 20
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) Frequency User n... User 2 User 1 Time Code 21 Transmitted and Received Signals in a CDMA System Information bits Code at transmitting end Transmitted signal Received signal Code at receiving end Decoded signal at the receiver 22
Frequency Hopping Frequency Frame Slot f 1 f 2 f 3 f 4 f 5 Time 23 Cellular System Infrastructure BS Service area (Zone) Early wireless system: Large zone 24
Cellular System: Small Zone BS BS Service area BS BS BS BS BS 25 Cellular Systems: Reuse channels to maximize capacity Geographic region divided into cells Frequencies/timeslots/codes reused at spatially-separated locations. Co-channel interference between same color cells. Base stations/mscs coordinate handoff and control functions Shrinking cell size increases capacity, as well as networking burden BASE STATION MSC
MS, BS, BSC, MSC, and PSTN Home phone PSTN MSC MSC BSC BSC BSC BSC BS MS BS MS BS MS BS MS BS MS BS MS BS MS BS MS 27 Control and Traffic Channels Mobile Station Forward (downlink) control channel Reverse (uplink) control channel Forward (downlink) traffic channel Reverse (uplink) traffic channel Base Station 28
Steps for a Call Setup from MS to BS BS MS 1. Need to establish path 2. Frequency/time slot/code assigned (FDMA/TDMA/CDMA) 3. Control Information Acknowledgement 4. Start communication 29 Steps for a Call Setup from BS to MS BS MS 1. Call for MS # pending 2. Ready to establish a path 3. Use frequency/time slot/code (FDMA/TDMA/CDMA) 4. Ready for communication 5. Start communication 30
A Simplified Wireless Communication System Representation Antenna Information to be transmitted (Voice/Data) Coding Modulator Transmitter Carrier Antenna Information received (Voice/Data) Decoding Demodulator Receiver Carrier 31 Signaling signaling: exchange of messages among network entities to enable (provide service) to connection/call before, during, after connection/call call setup and teardown (state) call maintenance (state) measurement, billing (state) between: end-user <-> network end-user <-> end-user network element <-> network element 32
Telephone network: circuit-switched voice trunks (data plane) 33 Telephone network: data and control planes 34
SS7: telephone signaling network Note: redundancy in SS7 elements 35 Signaling System 7: telephone network signaling out-of-band signaling: telephony signaling carried over separate network from telephone calls (data) allows for signaling between any switches (not just directly-connected ) allows for signaling during call (not just before/after) allows for higher-than-voice-data-rate signaling security: in-band tone signaling helps phone phreaks; out of band signaling more secure SS7 network: packet-switched calls circuit-switched lots of redundancy (for reliability) in signaling network links, elements 36
Signaling System 7: telephone network signaling between telephone network elements: signaling control point (SCP): services go here e.g., database functions signaling transfer point (STP): packet-switches of SS7 network send/receive/route signaling messages signaling switching point (SSP): attach directly to end user endpoints of SS7 network 37 Example: signaling a POTS call 4. STP X forwards 3. STP W forwards IAM SSP B 2. SSP A IAM to STP X formulates Initial Address Message (IAM), Y W forwards to STP 1. caller goes W offhook, dials X callee. SSP A decides to route call via SSP B. Assigns idle trunk A-B A B 38
Example: signaling a POTS call 7. SSP A receives ACM, connects subscriber line to allocated A-B trunk (caller hears ringing) 5. B determines it serves callee, creates address completion message (ACM[A,B,trunk]), rings callee phone, sends ringing sound on trunk to A 6. ACM routed to Z to Y to A A W Y Z X B 39 Example: signaling a POTS call 8. Callee goes off hook, B creates, sends answer message to A (ANM[A,B,trunk]) 9. ANM routed to A W Z 10. SSP A receives ANM, checks caller is connected in both directions to trunk. Call is connected! A Y X B 40
Example: signaling a 800 ca11 800 number: logical phone number translation to physical phone number needed, e.g., 1-800-CALL_ATT translates to 162-962- 1943 3. M performs lookup, sends 2. STP W reply forwards to A request to M M W 1. Caller dials 800 number, A recognizes 800 number, formulates translation query, send to STP W A Y B 41 Example: signaling a 800 call 800 number: logical phone number translation to physical phone number needed M W Z 1. A begins signaling to set up call to number associated with 800 number A X B 42
3G Cellular Design: Voice and Data Data is bursty, whereas voice is continuous Typically require different access and routing strategies 3G widens the data pipe : 384 Kbps. Standard based on wideband CDMA Packet-based switching for both voice and data 3G cellular struggling in Europe and Asia Evolution of existing systems (2.5G,2.6798G): GSM+EDGE IS-95(CDMA)+HDR 100 Kbps may be enough What is beyond 3G? The trillion dollar question 43 Third Generation Cellular Systems and Services IMT-2000 (International Mobile Telecommunications-2000): - Fulfill one's dream of anywhere, anytime communications a reality. Key Features of IMT-2000 include: - High degree of commonality of design worldwide; - Compatibility of services within IMT-2000 and with the fixed networks; - High quality; - Small terminal for worldwide use; - Worldwide roaming capability; - Capability for multimedia applications, and a wide range of services and terminals. 44
Third Generation Cellular Systems and Services Important Component of IMT-2000 is ability to provide high bearer rate capabilities: - 2 Mbps for fixed environment; - 384 Kbps for indoor/outdoor and pedestrian environments; - 144 kbps for vehicular environment. Standardization Work: - Release 1999 specifications - In processing Scheduled Service: - Started in October 2001 in Japan (W-CDMA) 45 Subscriber Growth 3G Subscribers Subscribers 2G Digital only Subscribers 1G Analogue only Subscribers 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 46
01011011 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) 0101 1011 Internet Access Point WLANs connect local computers (100m range) Breaks data into packets Channel access is shared (random access) Backbone Internet provides best-effort service Poor performance in some apps (e.g. video) 47 Wireless LAN Standards 802.11b (Current Generation) Standard for 2.4GHz ISM band (80 MHz) Frequency hopped spread spectrum 1.6-10 Mbps, 500 ft range 802.11a (Emerging Generation) Standard for 5GHz NII band (300 MHz) OFDM with time division 20-70 Mbps, variable range Similar to HiperLAN in Europe 802.11g (New Standard) Standard in 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands OFDM Speeds up to 54 Mbps In 200?, all WLAN cards will have all 3 standards 48
Satellite Systems Cover very large areas Different orbit heights GEOs (39000 Km) versus LEOs (2000 Km) Optimized for one-way transmission Radio (XM, DAB) and movie (SatTV) broadcasting Most two-way systems struggling or bankrupt Expensive alternative to terrestrial system 49 Bluetooth Cable replacement RF technology (low cost) Short range (10m, extendable to 100m) 2.4 GHz band (crowded) 1 Data (700 Kbps) and 3 voice channels Widely supported by telecommunications, PC, and consumer electronics companies Few applications beyond cable replacement 8C32810.61-Cimini-7/98
Ultrawideband Radio (UWB) UWB is an impulse radio: sends pulses of tens of picoseconds(10-12 ) to nanoseconds (10-9 ) Duty cycle of only a fraction of a percent A carrier is not necessarily needed Uses a lot of bandwidth (GHz) Low probability of detection Excellent ranging capability Multipath highly resolvable: good and bad Can use OFDM to get around multipath problem. 51 IEEE 802.15.4 / ZigBee Radios Low-Rate Low-Cost WPAN Data rates of 20, 40, 250 kbps Star clusters or peer-to-peer operation Support for low latency devices CSMA-CA channel access Very low power consumption Frequency of operation in ISM bands Focus is primarily on radio and access techniques 52
Data rate 100 Mbit/sec 10 Mbit/sec 802.11g 802.11b UWB 802.11a 1 Mbit/sec 100 kbits/sec 3G Bluetooth ZigBee ZigBee 10 kbits/sec UWB 0 GHz 1GHz 2 GHz 3 GHz 4 GHz 5 GHz 6 GHz 53 Range 10 km 1 km 3G 100 m 802.11b,g 802.11a 10 m ZigBee Bluetooth ZigBee UWB UWB 1 m 0 GHz 1GHz 2 GHz 3 GHz 4 GHz 5 GHz 6 GHz 54
Power Dissipation 10 W 1 W 3G 802.11bg 802.11a 100 mw Bluetooth UWB 10 mw ZigBee ZigBee UWB 1 mw 0 GHz 1GHz 2 GHz 3 GHz 4 GHz 5 GHz 6 GHz 55 Emerging Systems Ad hoc wireless networks Sensor networks Distributed control networks 56
Ad-Hoc Networks Peer-to-peer communications. No backbone infrastructure. Routing can be multihop. Topology is dynamic. Fully connected with different link SIRs 57 Design Issues Ad-hoc networks provide a flexible network infrastructure for many emerging applications. The capacity of such networks is generally unknown. Transmission, access, and routing strategies for ad-hoc networks are generally ad-hoc. Crosslayer design critical and very challenging. Energy constraints impose interesting design tradeoffs for communication and networking. 58
Sensor Networks Energy is the driving constraint Nodes powered by nonrechargeable batteries Data flows to centralized location. Low per-node rates but up to 100,000 nodes. Data highly correlated in time and space. Nodes can cooperate in transmission, reception, compression, and signal processing. 59 Spectrum Regulation Spectral Allocation in US controlled by FCC (commercial) or OSM (defense) FCC auctions spectral blocks for set applications. Some spectrum set aside for universal use Worldwide spectrum controlled by ITU-R Regulation can stunt innovation, cause economic disasters, and delay system rollout 60
61 Standards Interacting systems require standardization Companies want their systems adopted as standard Alternatively try for de-facto standards Standards determined by TIA/CTIA in US IEEE standards often adopted Process fraught with inefficiencies and conflicts Worldwide standards determined by ITU-T In Europe, ETSI is equivalent of IEEE Protocols are standardized by IETF as RFCs 62