Definition 2 (Projective plane). A projective plane is a class of points, and a class of lines satisfying the axioms:

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1 Math 3181 Name: Dr. Franz Rothe January 30, 2014 All3181\3181_spr14h2.tex Homework has to be turned in this handout. The homework can be done in groups up to three due February 11/12 2 Homework 1 Definition 1 (Quadrangle and quadrilateral). Four points, no three of which lie on a line, are said to be a quadrangle. These four points are necessarily distinct. Four lines, no three of which intersect at a point, are said to be a quadrilateral. Again these four lines are necessarily distinct. Definition 2 (Projective plane). A projective plane is a class of points, and a class of lines satisfying the axioms: P.1 Every two points lie on exactly one line. P.2 Every two lines intersect at exactly one point. P.3 There exist four points of which no three lie on a line. Remark. The lines are not necessarily sets of points. Problem 2.1. Which parallel property holds for a projective plane? Convince yourself that on every line of a projective plane lie at least three points. Secondly, convince yourself that in every point intersect at least three lines, and that a quadrilateral exists. 1

2 For Hilbert s detailed investigations about the Theorem of Desargues, it is enough to use the following formulation in parallel setting. This is not any real restriction. By means of the projective completion, one can get back to the general Theorem of Desargues, spelled out in the script. Proposition 1 (Theorem of Desargues in parallel setting). (i) If two triangles in a plane have three pairs of parallel corresponding sides, then the three lines through their corresponding vertices either meet in one point, or all three are parallel. (ii) If the three lines through the corresponding vertices of two triangles in a plane either meet in one point, or all three are parallel, and moreover, two pairs of corresponding sides are parallel, then the third pair of corresponding sides are parallel, too. These statements are true for a plane which is part of a three dimensional incidence geometry, satisfying the axioms of incidence (I.1) through (I.8) and the strict parallel postulate (IV*). Problem 2.2. Provide a drawing for statement (i) of Proposition 1 above. Use blue shades for the lines assumed parallel, and red to mark the coincidence asserted. 2

3 Problem 2.3. Provide a drawing for statement (ii) of Proposition 1 above. Use now blue shades for the coincidence and the two pairs of parallel assumed, and red to mark the parallelism asserted. 3

4 Definition 3 (The projective plane over a field F). The "points" of the projective plane PF 2 are the sets of equivalent triples (xλ, yλ, zλ), where x, y, z F and λ runs over the nonzero elements of F. The "lines" of the projective plane are equations ax + by + cz = 0 with coefficients a, b, c F, not all three equal to zero. A "point lies on a line" if and only if the coordinate triple (x, y, z) satisfies the equation of the line. The triples (x, y, z) F 3 \ (0, 0, 0) are the homogeneous coordinates for the points of the projective plane. Similarly, the triples (a, b, c) F 3 \ (0, 0, 0) are the homogeneous coordinates for the lines of the projective plane. Again, it is easy to check, but important to confirm: Main Theorem 1. The projective plane over any field is a projective plane. Problem 2.4 (Three points on a line). In a projective coordinate plane three points with the homogeneous coordinates (x 1, y 1, z 1 ), (x 2, y 2, z 2 ) and (x 3, y 3, z 3 ) are given. Check that the three points lie on a line if and only if the determinant x 1 x 2 x 3 y 1 y 2 y 3 z 1 z 2 z 3 = 0 You may use vectors or three-dimensional analytic geometry, to keep the argument as simple as possible. 4

5 Problem 2.5. Give exact definitions for segment and for ray. Include the obviously necessary details. Use only the primary notions. Problem 2.6. Give an exact definition for a triangle. Use the primary notions. Include the obviously necessary details. 5

6 Definition 4. Let A, B and C be three points on the given line with B lying between A and C. The two rays BA and BC. are called the opposite rays if their common vertex B lies between A and C. We say that two points in the same ray lie on the same side of the vertex. Two points in opposite rays lie on different sides of the vertex. Proposition 2 ( Line separation Theorem ). Given is a line and a vertex lying on it. Each point of the line except the vertex is contained in exactly one of the opposite rays originating from the vertex. Proposition 3 (Hilbert s Proposition 4, also called Three-point Theorem ). Among any three points A, B and C lying on a line, there exists exactly only one lying between the two other points. Proposition 4 (Hilbert s Proposition 5, also called Four-point Theorem ). Any four points on a line can be notated in a way that all four order relations that keep the alphabetic order hold. Problem 2.7. Why does the line separation theorem and the three point theorem, together imply the four-point theorem. Complete the following reasoning. Reasoning. Given are four different points on a line l. By the?, one of them, which we name B lies between two others. Some of the four given points lie on different sides of B. Denote by A the point lying by itself on one side of B. The points on the other side are?. We name them such that B C D holds. We have thus obtained the three order relations? We still have to confirm the fourth order relation, concerning A, C, D. All three points B, C, D lie on one ray emanating from A. And all three points? lie on one ray emanating from D. Hence only one order relation, namely A C D is possible. Thus in the list A B C D, all four alphabetic order relations hold. 6

7 Remark. The Line separation Theorem does not follow neither simply from the axioms (II.1)(II.2) and (II.3), nor from the Three-point Theorem. The following counterexample has been constructed by Hartshorne. The "points" are the integers modulo 5. Hence there exist just five points. There is one "line" through all five points. The "order relation" is defined by requiring (2.1) a b c if and only if 2b a + c (mod 5) Question. Convince yourself that axioms (II.1) and (II.2) are valid for this new ordering; of any three distinct points 0, a, b exactly one lies between the two others. There are six cases to be checked: (0, a, b) = (0, 1, 4), (0, 2, 3), (0, 1, 2), (0, 2, 4), (0, 1, 3), (0, 3, 4) In each case, find the middle point and write down the valid order relation. Show that of any three distinct points, exactly one lies between the other two. Problem 2.8. To see that the line separation Theorem does not follow neither simply from the axioms (II.1)(II.2) and (II.3), nor from the Three-point Theorem, we proceed as follows. Convince yourself that for the order defined above a x c if and only if x 3(a + c) (mod 5) a c y if and only if y 2c a (mod 5) For better reading I denote the five points now by P 0, P 1, P 2, P 3, P 4. Of which three points consists the segment P 0 P 2. Of which four points consists the ray P 0 P 2. 7

8 Of which points consists the segment P 0 P 3. Of which points consists the ray P 0 P 3. Why are P 0 P 2 and P 0 P 3 two opposite rays. Which points are common to the opposite rays P 0 P 2 and P 0 P 3. Why is the line separation Theorem not valid in this interpretation. 8

9 Problem 2.9. We consider points and lines in one plane. What does it mean to say that the points A and A lie on the same side of line a. What does it mean to say points A and B lie on different sides of line a. Proposition 5 (Hilbert s Proposition 8, the Plane separation Theorem ). Each line a, lying in a plane α, separates the points of this plane which do not lie on the line, into two nonempty regions R and S called half planes which have the following properties: (i) every point lying in the plane α lies either on the line a, or in the half plane R, or in the halfplane S, but not in any two of these three sets; (ii) for any two points A in the halfplane R and B in the halfplane S, the segment AB intersects line a; (iii) for any two points A and A in the halfplane R, the segment AA does not intersect the line a; (iv) for any two points B and B in the half plane S, the segment BB does not intersect the line a. The following proof of the plane separation theorem uses only the axioms of order and Bernay s Lemma. 9

10 Figure 1: Generic cases in the proof of the plane separation theorem. Figure 2: Special cases in the proof of the plane separation theorem. Problem 2.. Complete the proof of the plane separation theorem given below. A simple proof of the plane separation theorem. By axiom?, there exist two points P Q on the line a. By axiom (I.3b), there exists a third point R in the plane α, not lying on the line a. The three points P, Q and R span the plane α. We can now separate the points of the plane α into those lying on the line a and,

11 additionally, the following two sets: R : = {A α : A / a, the segment RA does not intersect the line a} S : = {B α : B / a, the segment RB intersects the line a} By axiom (II.2), there exist a point S such that?. In other words, the point S lies on the extension of the ray RP beyond point P. Similarly, we get point T such that R Q T. Since the points P, Q and R do not lie on a line, neither the three points R, S and T lie on a line. Since R R, and S, T S, both sets are?. From the definition, it is clear that each point of the plane α lies in exactly one of the three sets R, a or S. Thus? has been checked. In the special case that A = R or A = R, the statements (ii) and (iii) follow from the definition. Moreover, we use repeatedly the following statement: Lemma 1. Assume that three points A R and B S and R as above lie on a line r, but point S does not lie on this line. Then line a intersects segment AS, but does not intersect segment BS. Reason for the Lemma. In the triangle ASR, the line a intersects the side SR by the construction of point S, but does not intersect side AR. By Pasch s axiom the line a intersects?, as to be shown. In the triangle BSR, the line a intersects both sides SR and BR. By?, the line a cannot intersect all three sides of a triangle. Hence the line a does not intersect the third side?, as to be shown. We now assume that A R and A R, and check statements (ii),(iii) and (iv). (ii) Given are a point A in the region R and a point B in the region S. We distinguish two cases: The three points R, A and B do not lie on a line. We apply Pasch s axiom to the triangle? and line a. The assumptions A R and B S mean that line a does?, but does intersect the side BR of the triangle. By Pasch s axiom the line a intersects a second side which can only be?, as to be shown. We consider now the special case that points R, A and B lie on a line. Either the three points S, A and B or the three points T, A and B do not lie on a line. Since the roles of S and T can be switched, I need only to consider the first possibility. We use Pasch s axiom for triangle ABS. Since line a intersects the side AS but not the side SB, the line a intersects the side AB, as to be shown. (iii) Given are two points A and A in the region R. We distinguish two cases: 11

12 The three points R, A and A do not lie on a line. We apply Pasch s axiom to the triangle? and line a. The assumptions A R and A R mean that line a does not intersect neither the side AR nor the side A R. By Pasch s axiom the line a? side AA, as to be shown. We consider now the special case that points R, A and A lie on a line. Either the point S or point T does not lie on this line. Since the roles of S and T can be switched, I need only to consider the first possibility. We use Bernay s Lemma for triangle AA S. Since line a intersects both sides AS and A S, the line a does not intersect the side AA, as to be shown. (iv) Given are two points B and B in the region S. We distinguish two cases: The three points R, B and B do not lie on a line. We apply Pasch s axiom to the triangle? and line a. The assumptions B S and B S mean that line a does not intersect both sides BR and B R. By?, the line a cannot intersect the third?, as to be shown. We consider now the special case that points R, B and B lie on a line. Either the point S or point T does not lie on this line. Since the roles of S and T can be switched, I need only to consider the first possibility. We use Pasch s axiom for triangle?. Since line a does not intersect neither side BS nor?, the line a does not intersect the side BB, as to be shown. 12

13 Figure 3: A ray interior of an angle intersects a segment from side to side. Proposition 6 (The Crossbar Theorem). A segment with endpoints on the two sides of an angle and a ray emanating from its vertex into the interior of the angle intersect. Problem Give a proof for the Crossbar Theorem. Complete the figure on page 13 according to your proof. 13