Close-Range. Photogrammetry. and 3D Imaging. 2nd edition. Edited by. Thomas Luhmann, Stuart Robson, Stephen Kyle. and Jan Boehm.

Transcription

1 Close-Range Photogrammetry and 3D Imaging 2nd edition Edited by Thomas Luhmann, Stuart Robson, Stephen Kyle and Jan Boehm De Gruyter

2 Content 1 Introduction Overview Content References Fundamental methods The photogrammetric process Aspects of photogrammetry Image-forming model Photogrammetric systems and procedures Analogue systems Digital systems Recording and analysis procedures Photogrammetric products Application areas Historical development 17 2 Mathematical fundamentals Coordinate systems Image and camera coordinate systems Pixel and sensor coordinate system Model coordinate system Object coordinate system Coordinate transformations Plane transformations Similarity transformation Affine transformation Polynomial transformation Bilinear transformation Projective transformation Spatial transformations Spatial rotations Spatial similarity transformation Homogeneous coordinate transformations Geometric elements Analytical geometry in the plane Straight line Circle Ellipse Curves Analytical geometry in 3D space Straight line Plane Rotationally symmetric shapes Surfaces Digital surface model 78

3 vjjj Content B-spline and Bezier surfaces Compliance with design Adjustment techniques The problem Functional model Stochastic model Least-squares method (Gauss-Markov linear model) Adjustment of direct observations General least squares adjustment Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm Conditional least squares adjustment Quality measures Precision and accuracy Confidence interval Correlations Reliability Error detection in practice Data snooping Variance component estimation Robust estimation with weighting functions Robust estimation according to LI norm RANSAC Computational aspects Linearisation Normal systems of equations Sparse matrix techniques and optimisation Imaging technology Physics of image formation Wave optics Electro-magnetic spectrum Radiometry Refraction and reflection Diffraction Optical imaging Geometric optics Apertures and stops Focussing Scheimpflug condition Aberrations Distortion Chromatic aberration Spherical aberration Astigmatism and curvature of field Coma Light fall-off and vignetting Resolution Resolving power of a lens 126

4 Content jx Geometric resolving power Contrast and modulation transfer function Fundamentals of sampling theory Sampling theorem Detector characteristics Photogrammetric Imaging Concepts Offline and online systems Offline photogrammetry Online photogrammetry Imaging configurations Single image acquisition Stereo image acquisition Multi-image acquisition Geometry of the camera as a measuring device Image scale and accuracy Image scale Accuracy estimation Interior orientation of a camera Physical definition of the image coordinate system Perspective centre and distortion Parameters of interior orientation Metric and semi-metric cameras Determination of interior orientation (calibration) Standardised correction functions Symmetric radial distortion Tangential distortion Affinity and shear Total correction Alternative correction formulations Simplified models Additional parameters Correction of distortion as a function of object distance Image-variant calibration Correction of local image deformation Iterative correction of imaging errors Fisheye projections System components Opto-electronic imaging sensors Principle of CCD sensor CCD area sensors CMOS matrix sensors Colour cameras Geometric properties Radiometric properties Camera technology Camera types Shutter Image stabilisation 187

5 x Content Lenses Relative aperture and f/number Field of view Super wide-angle and fisheye lenses Zoom lenses Tilt-shift lenses Telecentric lenses Stereo image splitting Filters Imaging systems Analogue cameras Analogue video cameras Analogue camera technology Digitisation of analogue video signals Digital cameras High-speed cameras Stereo and multi-camera systems Micro and macro-scanning cameras Micro scanning Macro scanning Panoramic cameras Line scanners Panorama stitching Panoramas from fisheye lenses Video theodolites and total stations Thermal imaging cameras Targeting and illumination Object targeting Targeting material Circular targets Spherical targets Patterned targets Coded targets Probes and hidden-point devices Illumination and projection techniques Electronic flash Pattern projection Laser projectors Directional lighting D cameras and range systems Laser-based systems Laser triangulation Laser scanners Laser trackers Fringe projection systems Stationary fringe projection Dynamic fringe projection (phase-shift method) Coded light (Gray code) 249

6 Content Single-camera fringe-projection systems Multi-camera fringe-projection systems Low-cost consumer grade range 3D cameras Analytical methods Overview Processing of single images Exterior orientation Standard case Special case of terrestrial photogrammetry Collinearity equations Space resection Space resection with known interior orientation Space resection with unknown interior orientation Approximate values for resection Resection with minimum object information Quality measures Linear orientation methods Direct linear transformation (DLT) Perspective projection matrix Object position and orientation by inverse resection Position and orientation of an object with respect to a camera Position and orientation of one object relative to another Projective transformation of a plane Mathematical model Influence of interior orientation Influence of non-coplanar object points Plane rectification Measurement of flat objects Single image evaluation of three-dimensional object models Object planes Digital surface models Differential rectification Processing of stereo images Stereoscopic principle Stereoscopic matching Tie points Orientation of stereo image pairs Normal case of stereo photogrammetry Epipolar geometry Relative orientation Coplanarity constraint Calculation Model coordinates Calculation of epipolar lines Calculation of normal-case images Quality of relative orientation Special cases of relative orientation 307

7 xii Content Fundamental matrix and essential matrix Absolute orientation Mathematical model Definition of the datum Calculation of exterior orientations Calculation of relative orientation from exterior orientations Stereoscopic processing Principle of stereo image processing Point determination using image coordinates Point determination with floating mark Multi-image processing and bundle adjustment General remarks Objectives Dataflow Mathematical model Adjustment model Normal equations Combined adjustment of photogrammetric and survey observations Adjustment of additional parameters Object coordinate system (definition of datum) Rank and datum defect Reference points Free net adjustment Generation of approximate Strategies for the automatic calculation of approximate values 349 values Initial value generation by automatic point measurement Practical aspects of the generation of approximate values Quality measures and analysis of results Output report Precision of image coordinates Precision of object coordinates Quality of self-calibration Strategies for bundle adjustment Simulation Divergence Elimination of gross errors Multi-image processing General space intersection Direct determination of geometric elements Determination of spatial curves (snakes) Panoramic photogrammetry Cylindrical panoramic imaging model Orientation of panoramic imagery Approximate values Space resection Bundle adjustment Epipolar geometry Spatial intersection 381

8 Content xiii Rectification of panoramic images Orthogonal rectification Tangential images Multi-media photogrammetry Light refraction at media interfaces Media interfaces Plane parallel media interfaces Ray tracing through refracting interfaces Extended model ofbundle triangulation Object-invariant interfaces Bundle-invariant interfaces Digital image processing Fundamentals Image processing procedure Pixel coordinate system Handling image data Image pyramids Data formats Image compression Image preprocessing Point operations Histogram Lookup tables Contrast enhancement Thresholding Image arithmetic Colour operations Colour spaces Colour transformations Colour combinations Filter operations Spatial domain and frequency domain Smoothing filters Morphological operations Wallis filter Edge extraction First order differential filters Second order differential filters Laplacian of Gaussian filter Image sharpening Hough transform Enhanced edge operators Sub-pixel interpolation Geometric image transformation Fundamentals of rectification Grey-value interpolation D visualisation 439

9 iterative x;v Content Overview Reflection and illumination Texture mapping Digital processing of single images Approximate values Possibilities Segmentation of point features Measurement of single point features On-screen measurement Centroid methods Correlation methods Least-squares matching Structural measuring methods Accuracy issues Contour following Profile-driven contour following Contour following by gradient analysis Image matching and 3D object reconstruction Overview Feature-based matching procedures Interest operators Feature detectors Correspondence analysis Correspondence analysis based on epipolar geometry Matching in image pairs Matching in image triples Matching in an unlimited number of images Area-based multi-image matching Multi-image matching Geometric constraints Semi-global matching Matching methods with object models Object-based multi-image matching Multi-image matching with surface grids Range imaging and point clouds Data representations Registration D target recognition D target recognition Automated correspondence analysis Point cloud registration - closest point algorithm Range-image processing Measuring tasks and systems Overview Single-camera systems Camera with hand-held probe Probing system with integrated camera 502

10 Content xy_ Camera system for robot calibration High-speed 6 DOF system Stereoscopic systems Digital stereo plotters Principle of stereoplotting Orientation procedures Object reconstruction Digital stereo viewing systems Stereo vision systems Multi-image systems Interactive processing systems Mobile industrial point measuring-systems Offline photogrammetric systems Online photogrammetric systems Static industrial online measuring systems Tube inspection system Steel-plate positioning system Passive surface-measuring systems Point and grid projection Multi-camera system with projected point arrays Multi-camera systems with target grid projection Multi-camera system with grid projection Digital image correlation with random surface-texture patterns Techniques for texture generation Data processing Multi-camera system for dynamic surface changes Measurement of complex surfaces Self-locating scanners orientation with object points Scanner location by optical tracking Mechanical location of scanners Dynamic photogrammetry Relative movement between object and imaging system Static object Moving object Recording dynamic sequences Motion capture (MoCap) Mobile measurement platforms Mobile mapping systems Close-range aerial imagery Measurement design and quality Project planning Planning criteria Accuracy issues Restrictions on imaging configuration Monte Carlo simulation Computer-aided design of the imaging network Quality measures and performance testing 552

11 xvj Content Quality parameters Measurement uncertainty Reference value Measurement error Accuracy Precision Precision and accuracy parameters from a bundle adjustment Relative accuracy Tolerance Resolution Acceptance and re-verification of measuring systems Definition of terms Differentiation from coordinate measuring machines (CMMs) Reference artefacts Testing of point-by-point measuring systems Testing of area-scanning systems Strategies for camera calibration Calibration methods Laboratory calibration Test-field calibration Plumb-line calibration On-the-job calibration Self-calibration System calibration Imaging configurations Calibration using a plane point field Calibration using a spatial point field Calibration with moving scale bar Problems with self-calibration Example applications Architecture, archaeology and cultural heritage Photogrammetric building records Siena cathedral Gunpowder tower, Oldenburg Haderburg castle D city and landscape models Building visualisation City models D record of Pompeii Free-form surfaces Statues and sculptures Large free-form objects Survey of the Bremen cog Image mosaics Image mosaics for mapping dinosaur tracks Central perspective image mosaic Engineering surveying and civil engineering 594

12 Content xvi[ D modelling of complex objects As-built documentation Stairwell measurement Deformation analysis Shape measurement of large steel converters Deformation of concrete tanks Material testing Surface measurement of mortar joints in brickwork Structural loading tests Roof and facade measurement Industrial applications Power stations and production plants Wind power stations Particle accelerators Aircraft and space industries Inspection of tooling jigs Process control Antenna measurement Car industry Rapid prototyping and reverse engineering Car safety tests Car body deformations Ship building industry Medicine Surface measurement Online navigation systems Miscellaneous applications Forensic applications Accident recording Scene-of-crime recording Scientific applications D reconstruction of a spider's web Monitoring glacier movements Earth sciences Literature Textbooks Photogrammetry Optic, camera and imaging techniques Digital image processing, computer vision and pattern recognition Mathematics and 3D computer graphics Least-squares adjustment and statistics Industrial and optical 3D metrology Introduction and history Mathematical fundamentals Transformations and geometry Adjustment techniques Imaging technology 633

13 xvjjj Content Optics and sampling theory Camera modelling and calibration Sensors and cameras Targeting and illumination Laser-based systems D imaging systems Phase-based measurements Analytical methods Analytical photogrammetry Bundle adjustment Camera calibration Multi-media photogrammetry Panoramic photogrammetry Digital image processing Fundamentals Pattern recognition and image matching Range image and point cloud processing Measurement tasks and systems Overviews Measurement of points and contours Measurement of surfaces Dynamic and mobile systems Quality issues and optimization Project planning and simulation Quality Applications Architecture, archaeology, city models Engineering and industrial applications Medicine, forensics, earth sciences Other sources of information Standards and guidelines Working groups and conferences 661 Abbreviations 663 Image sources 667 Index 671