We assume uniform hashing (UH):

Transcription

1 We assume uniform hashing (UH): the probe sequence of each key is equally likely to be any of the! permutations of 0,1,, 1 UH generalizes the notion of SUH that produces not just a single number, but a whole probe sequence True uniform hashing is dif cult to implement, however, and in practice suitable approximations (such as double hashing, de ned below) are used MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct We examine three common techniques to compute the probe sequences required for open addressing: linear probing, quadratic probing, and double hashing These techniques all guarantee that,0),,1),, 1) is a permutation of 0,1,, for each key No technique ful lls the assumption of UH; none of them is capable of generating more than different probe sequences Double hashing has the greatest number of probe sequences and gives the best results MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

2 Linear probing Given a hash function 0,1,, 1, an auxiliary hash function, use the function = mod Given key, we rst probe the slot given by the auxiliary hash function ] We next probe slots +1,, 1] Wrap around to 0, 1,, 1] Initial probe determines the entire probe sequence, there are only distinct seq s MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Linear probing is easy to implement, but it suffers from a problem known as primary clustering Long runs of occupied slots build up, increasing the average search time Clusters arise because an empty slot preceded by full slots gets lled next with probability +1) Long runs of occupied slots tend to get longer, and the average search time increases MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

3 Quadratic probing Use a hash function of the form = ( )mod where are positive auxiliary constants Initial position probed is ]; later positions are offset by amounts that depend in a quadratic manner on the probe number This works much better than linear probing, but to make full use of the hash table, the values of,, and are constrained MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Also, if two keys have the same initial probe position, then their probe sequences are the same, since,0 =,0 implies This property leads to a milder form of clustering, called secondary clustering As in linear probing, the initial probe determines the entire sequence, and so only distinct probe sequences are used MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

4 Double hashing One of the best methods available for open addressing, the permutations produced have many characteristics of random ones Uses a hash function of the form = ( )) mod where and are auxiliary hash functions The initial probe goes to position ; successive probes are offset from previous positions by the amount ( ), modulo MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Here we have a hash table of size 13 with mod 13 and = 1 + ( mod 11) Since 14 mod 13 and 14 mod 11, we insert the key 14 into empty slot 9, after examining slots 1 and 5 and nding them to be occupied MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

5 The value ( ) must be relatively prime to for the entire hash table to be searched A convenient way to ensure this condition is to let be a power of 2 and to design so that it always produces an odd number Another way is to let be prime and to design so that it always returns a positive integer less than For example, we could choose prime and let mod, = 1 + ( mod ), where is slightly less than (say, 1) MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct E.g., if = 123,456, = 701, and = 700, we have = 80 and = 257 We rst probe position 80, and then we examine every 257 th slot (modulo ) until we nd the key or have examined every slot When is prime or a power of 2, double hashing improves over linear or quadratic probing in that ) probe sequences are used, rather than ) Each possible )pair yields a distinct probe sequence. MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

6 Analysis of open-address hashing Let us express our analysis of in terms of the load factor of the hash table Now at most one element occupies each slot, and thus, which implies 1 Assume that we are using uniform hashing In this idealized scheme, the probe sequence,0),,1),, 1) used to insert or search for each key is equally likely to be any permutation of 0,1,, 1 MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Theorem 11.6 Given an open-address hash table with <1,the expected number of probes in an unsuccessful search is at most 1 (1 ), assuming UH. Proof Every probe but the last accesses an occupied slot that does not contain the desired key, and the last slot probed is empty. De ne the random variable to be the number of probes made in an unsuccessful search, and also de ne the event, =1,2,, to be the event that an th probe occurs and it is to an occupied slot. MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

7 The event is the intersection of events. Bound Pr by Pr{ } which by Exercise C.2-5 Pr } = Pr Pr Pr There are elements and slots, so Pr. For >1, the probability that there is a th probe and it is to an occupied slot, given that the rst 1probes were to occupied slots, is + 1)/( +1). MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct This probability follows because we would be nding one of the remaining +1)elements in one of the +1 unexamined slots, and by the assumption of UH, the probability is the ratio of these quantities. implies that ) for all. Therefore, we have for all, Pr = MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

8 Now, because E = Pr { } E = Pr } = = 1 MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct This bound of 1 (1 ) = has an intuitive interpretation We always make the rst probe With probability approximately, it finds an occupied slot, so that we need to probe again With probability approx., the rst two slots are occupied and we make a third probe, If is a constant, Theorem 11.6 predicts that an unsuccessful search runs in 1 time If the table is half full, the avg. number of probes in an unsuccessful search is 1.5 =2 If it is 90% full, the average number of probes is = 10 MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

9 Corollary 11.7 Inserting an element into an open-address hash table with load factor requires at most 1 (1 ) probes on average, assuming uniform hashing. Proof An element is inserted only if there is room in the table, and thus <1. Inserting a key requires an unsuccessful search followed by placing the key into the rst empty slot found. Thus, the expected number of probes is at most 1 (1 ). MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Theorem 11.8 Given an open-address hash table with load factor <1,the expected number of probes in a successful search is at most 1 ln 1 assuming UH and assuming that each key in the table is equally likely to be searched for. MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

10 12 Binary Search Trees The keys in a binary search tree (BST) are always stored in such a way as to satisfy the binary-search-tree property: Let be a node in a BST If is a node in the left subtree of, then If is a node in the right subtree of, then MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

11 The BST property allows us to print out all the keys in a BST in sorted order by a simple recursive algorithm, called an inorder tree walk It prints the key of the root of a subtree between printing the values in its left subtree and printing those in its right subtree Apreorder tree walk prints the root before the values in either subtree Apostorder tree walk prints the root after the values in its subtrees MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct INORDER-TREE-WALK( ) 1. if NIL 2. INORDER-TREE-WALK ) 3. print 4. INORDER-TREE-WALK ) It takes ) time to walk an -node BST after the initial call, the procedure calls itself recursively exactly twice for each node once for its left child and once for its right child MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

12 12.2 Querying a binary search tree In addition to the SEARCH operation, BSTs can support queries MINIMUM, MAXIMUM, SUCCESSOR, and PREDECESSOR We show how to support each operation in time ) on any BST of height Given a pointer to the root of the tree and a key, TREE-SEARCH returns a pointer to a node with key if one exists; otherwise, it returns NIL MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct TREE-SEARCH ) 1. if == NIL or == 2. return 3. if 4 return TREE-SEARCH 5 else return TREE-SEARCH(., ) MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

13 We can rewrite this in an iterative fashion by unrolling the recursion into a while loop On most computers, the iterative version is more ef cient ITERATIVE-TREE-SEARCH ) 1. while NIL and 2. if else 5. return MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Minimum and maximum We nd a minimum element by following left child pointers until we encounter a NIL TREE-MINIMUM ) 1. while NIL return MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

14 The BST property guarantees that TREE- MINIMUM is correct The pseudocode for TREE-MAXIMUM is symmetric Both of these procedures run in ) time on a tree of height since, as in TREE-SEARCH, the sequence of nodes encountered forms a simple path downward from the root MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Successor and predecessor The structure of a BST lets us determine the successor of a node without comparing keys TREE-SUCCESSOR ) 1. if NIL 2. return TREE-MINIMUM ) while NIL and == return MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

15 The running time of TREE-SUCCESSOR on a tree of height is ), we either follow a simple path up down the tree The procedure TREE-PREDECESSOR also runs in time Theorem 12.2 We can implement the dynamic-set operations SEARCH, MINIMUM, MAXIMUM, SUCCESSOR, and PREDECESSOR so that each one runs in ) time on a BST of height MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Insertion and deletion TREE-INSERT ) 1. =NIL while NIL if else 8.. = 9. if == NIL 10. // tree was empty 11.elseif else TREE-INSERT runs in ) time on a tree of height MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

16 MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Deleting a node from a BST has three basic cases but one of them is a bit tricky has 0 children: remove it by modifying its parent to replace with NIL has just 1 child: elevate that child to take s position in the tree by modifying s parent to replace by s child has 2 children: nd s successor in s right subtree and have take s position. The rest of s original right subtree becomes s new right subtree, and s left subtree becomes s new left subtree. MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

17 The last case is the tricky one because it matters whether is s right child If has no left child, then we replace by its right child, which may or may not be NIL If has just one child, which is its left child, then we replace by it MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Otherwise, has both children. s successor lies in right subtree and has no left child. We want to replace with in the tree If is s right child, then we replace by, leaving s right child alone Otherwise, lies within s right subtree but is not s right child. In this case, we rst replace by its own right child, and then we replace by MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

18 MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Subroutine TRANSPLANT replaces the subtree rooted at with the subtree rooted at, s parent becomes s parent, and s parent ends up having as its appropriate child TRANSPLANT ) 1. if == NIL elseif == 4. = 5. else = 6. if NIL 7.. =. MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

19 TREE-DELETE (, ) 1. if == NIL 2. TRANSPLANT ) 3. elseif == NIL 4. TRANSPLANT 5. else =TREE-MINIMUM 6. if 7. TRANSPLANT TRANSPLANT = MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Each line of TREE-DELETE, including the calls to TRANSPLANT, takes constant time, except for the call to TREE-MINIMUM TREE-DELETE runs in ) time on a tree of height Theorem 12.3 We can implement the dynamic-set operations INSERT and DELETE so that each one runs in ) time on a binary search tree of height MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

20 13 Red-Black Trees A red-black tree (RBT) is a BST with one extra bit of storage per node: color, either RED or BLACK Constraining the node colors on any path from the root to a leaf Ensures that no such path is more than twice as long as any other, so that the tree is approximately balanced MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct A red-black tree is a binary tree that satis es the following red-black properties: 1. Every node is either RED or BLACK 2. The root is BLACK 3. Every leaf (NIL) is BLACK 4. If a node is RED, then both its children are BLACK 5. For each node, all simple paths from the node to descendant leaves contain the same number of BLACK nodes MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

21 MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct We call the number of black nodes on any simple path from a node (not inclusive) down to a leaf the black-height of the node, denoted bh( By property 5, black-height is well de ned, since all descending simple paths from the node have the same number of black nodes We de ne the black-height of a red-black tree to be the black-height of its root MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

22 Lemma 13.1 A red-black tree with internal nodes has height at most 2lg( + 1). Proof Use induction (on the height of ) to show that the subtree rooted at any node contains at least 2 ) 1internal nodes. If the height of is 0, then must be a leaf ( ), and the subtree rooted at indeed contains at least 2 ) 1=2 1=0 internal nodes. Consider a node that has positive height and is an internal node with two children. MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct Each child has a black-height of either bh( ) or bh 1, depending on whether its color is red or black, respectively. The height of a child of < the height of itself; by the inductive hypothesis each child has at least 2 1internal nodes. Thus, the subtree rooted at contains at least =2 1internal nodes, which proves the claim. To complete the proof of the lemma, let be the height of the tree. MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct

23 According to property 4, at least half the nodes on any simple path from the root to a leaf, not including the root, must be black. Consequently, the black-height of the root must be at least 2; thus, 2 1. Moving the 1 to the left-hand side and taking logarithms on both sides yields lg( + 1) 2, or 2lg( + 1). MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct As an immediate consequence, we can implement operations SEARCH, MINIMUM, MAXIMUM, SUCCESSOR, and PREDECESSOR in (lg ) time on RBTs TREE-INSERT and TREE-DELETE do not guarantee that the modi ed BST will be a red-black tree We shall see how to support these two operations in (lg ) time MAT AA+DS, Fall Oct