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PART I Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets Mid,Cle East -Eg5rpt, India and China-dedicated office spaces of any stze could have been iound only in the palaces and outposts of kings and ecclesiastics who kept their books in the buildings where they lived. THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION Through the Middle Ages, little happened to advance office development until the Renaissance brought the invention of double-entry bookkeeping, discount banking and modern capitalism. These inventions stimulated business capitals such as Venice, Florence, London and Amsterdam to impose a new order on the world. As early as 1480, powerful banking and trading houses headquartered in these new financial centers were building large, iolid houses, some of which are still in use as banks and corporate headquarters.l th" late 18th and ear$ 19th centuries brought with them a broad range of technological innovations and a radical rearrangement of the landscape. They also biought vast economic and social changes. water;pgwered and latei coal-poweied manufacturing slashed costs and allowed the distribution of low-priced manufactured goods to an eager world marketplace. standards of living rose and urban populations soared as immigrants poured in from the farm to share in the new prosperity, often by way of the -new railroad and steamship lines. While man\r suffered from the associated dislocations, the general effect was to increase the wealth of the industriahzing countries. Among the consequences was a regrouping of business along new lines of travel and communication. River and canal crossings, road junctions and ports had always attracted trade and manufacturine. NoW as manufacturit g *r enabled by the coming of the steam engine to mwe_down from the hills where water power was most readily harnessed, rail lines and especially the rail tranifer points located in the cities began to compete with them for growth. In fames Heilbrun's phrase, railroads "proved to be the most powerful agglomerative invention of all time," an observation confirmed by the vasi influx of jobs, people and capital along the paths carved by the new trackage. As the Industrial Revolution spread and prospered, cities in Great Britain and America launched upon a period of expansion that would be interrupted only by periodic financial panics. Growing inter-city and interregional trade, made easier by the new rail lines and communications, stimulited business and manufacturing activity of every kind. Centers like London, Manchestex, Liverpool, Boston, Philadelphia and New York 1 Nikolaus Pevsnel AHistory of BuildingWpes (Princeton: Princeton U_niversity?ress, 1976); Spiro Kostoff, A History of Architecfure (New York: Oxford University Press, L985).
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PART I Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets productivity of office workers was gas light, invented by Lavoisier short$ before he was guillotined in the French Revolution. It became practical witfi the founding of the first gas company in London (1813) and was common by 1860, reaching a peak of perfection with the 1885 invention of the gas mantle, which multiplied the lumens it produced. Meanwhile, Thomas Edison had registered his patent on the incandescent electric bulb in 1gz9 and would open the Pearl street Power station in 1885, making electric light a commercial reality.s white-collar work was growing more efficient in other ways thanks to the development of modern communications. By 1868 most American cities were connected by samuel E B. Morse's telegraph, which had seen its first public use as early as 1844. The telephone, independently invented by r{*a Gray and Alexander Graham Bell in the 1820s (Bell's patent dates to 1876) was in commercial useby 1878, and in 1882 the list of subscribers had more than 150,000 names. Soon the telephone and telegraph would be supglemented by Guglielmo Marconi's wireless telegraphy, which had reached across the English Channel in 1889 and would ctois ihe Atlantic in 1901. Toilets, Lifts and Skeletons Three other key inventions were essential before the modern office building could take shape: the flush toilet, the passenger elevator and skeleton construction. The first of these had appeared at the Minoan court four millennia ago and reappeared in various forms over the years. It would come to near-perfection only with Alexander Cumming siazspatent for a toilet with a "stink trap" that prevented sewer gases from 6acking up through the drains. cumming's invention allowed office tenants previously dependent on chamber pots to enjoy upstairs accommodations without paying servants to dump their deposits. The growth in the size, number and comfort of office buildings would not have been possible without corresponding improvements in sanitary and storm sewer installations.6 The second key to the future of the office building was the new safetyequipped, steam-driven passenger elevator exhibited by Elisha Graves otis at the Crystal Palace Exposition of 1853 in New york city. otis's elevatoq, which first appeared in practical form about 1858 in the Haughwout Building (designed by l. n Gaynor and Daniel Badger) at Broadway and Broome street in New York City, was far from the first mechanicil s Charles Panatt, Panatis Extraordinary Origins of Eaeryday Things (New York: Harper & Row, 7987); Charles Panati, Panatib Browserb Book of Beginiings (Boston: Houghton Mi^fflin Com- P?!y' 19M); Arnold Lehman, othe New York Skyscraper-A History of its Development 1870-7939," (Ph.D. diss., Yale University, May L974). 6 See Panati, Origins of Eaeryday Thin-qs and Browserb Book of Beginnings.
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PART I Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets tile arch flooq a method of bridging the distance between cross-beams with flat arches of hollow terra cotta tiles, the flanges of which covered the I-beams to protect them. Steel lathing was used with " adamant" plaster for greater fire resistance; so was terra cotta partitioning covered with plaste4 a technique still common in the 1950s. Toward the end of the century, new foundation techniques employing grillages of steel embedded in concrete made it safe for architects such as Burnham & Root to push structures 300 feet into the aiq, as they did at the Masonic Temple Building at State and Randolph Streets in Chiiugo (1890). This impressive mixed-use development had 7ahydraulic passengur elevators and retail stores on its lower floors. It would set a standard for many subsequent buildings aimed at the prestige market.e START OF THE MODERN ERA: LATE 1.9th AND EARLY 2oth CENTURY through most of the 19th century serious commercial building had been characterized by masonry construction. It was limited to aboui six stories in height by its own weight and by the inability or unwillingness of most people to climb any higher in dim stairwells. L. s. Buffington of Minneapolis - had worked out the principles of steel framing n7871and patented a 28-story design in 1gzg. There followed a variety of skeleton-framed buildings in Europe and America. The technique reached a climax in 1884-8s with the competition entries of Frederick Baumann and william LeBaron fenney for what would turn out to be fenney's fire-resistant Home Insurance Company Building in Chicago, a ten-story marvel of skeleton framing and the first exemplar of the new Chicago school of architecture. The structure, completery ielf-supporting, incorporated the first steel I-beams rolled by the Carnegie enipps company of Pittsburgh, which sold them to Jenney for use in ionluniuon with the_wrougjrt iron beams and cast iron columns called for inthe design.lo soon after came the fully skeleton-framed rhcoma Buildingby Hola-bird and Roche (1887-89), which had riveted junctions for added- structural rigidity. Home Insurance and rhcoma weie bellwethers for the school of architecture that almost immediately formed itself on the principles of skeleton-frame construction: lightweight curtain walls of brick, stone and terra cotta; generous wooden "Chicago,, windows grouped in threes; simple ornamentation and rational floor plans. ThiJ "chicago school,, would set the style for office buildings around the world..11 e Masonic Temple (New York: Exhibit pubtishing Com panfr no date). 10 See Lehman and Thllmadge. i1 John Zukowsky, editor, Chicago Architecture 1872-1922 (Munich: Prestel-Verlag, 1987).
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10 PART I Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets retail stores, restaurants, hotels, taverns, theaters, churches, schools and bawdy houses. More than evet downtown was now the vibrant heart of the American city. It would continue to capture the bulk of new office construction for almost a hundred years, until suburban development began to take hold on a large scale in the late 1960s. Steel-framed structures predominated but reinforced concrete was on the march. It had already been used for floor slabs in Great Britain since 1854, and Portland cement had been used in the United States since L872.13 French technology featured at the Paris Exposition of L867 encouraged its wider use in the United States and elsewhere. Thirty years lateq, nl902-03, the L6-story Ingalls Building in Cincinnati became 'the first reinforced concrete skyscraper",14 and by 7903 C.A.P Turner published his system for manufacturing beamless floor slabs of this material. Employers found that the advantages of the office space offered by these centrally located buildings more than offset its relatively high cost and New York's Flatiron Building, constructed in 1902-03, was part of a wave of multi-tenant speculative structures built in response to businesses' demand for a downto\ /n location. (Library of Congress)
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T2 PART I Characteristics of Office Buildirgr and Office Markets Building) a triangular structure built to the designs of Daniel H. Burnham and -Company in 1902-03 at Fifth Avenue and -Broadway. Many of these buildings were aimed at particular trades and industries: railroad companies, stockbrokers, insurance agents, lawyers, doctors, real estate men.rs Mechanical Systems Long before the start of the Great war all new buildings were equipped with central heating. In various forms, it dated back to fro*"r, times. Hot water systems fired by coal which distributed heat to cast iron radiators below the windows had been used through much of the 19th century. steam heat, quieter than the burbling hot water systems common at the time, appeared toward 1890, the year the Masonic Temple Building was built in Chicago. coupled with electric_tisntins, steam heat made office buildings habitable, though uncomfortably dry, even on dark, cold winter days. s6on they would be tolerable even on hot summer days. Air cooling with ice and blowers was an old idea which had been revived by Adler Ind sullivan at the Auditorium Theater Building (1ggz-g9) in Chicago. It would be reinvented by willis Carrier in 1902 with a system that co'jtrolled humidity and air movement as well as temperature, and used by Frank Lloyd wright in!\ hlh Building (Buffalo.New york, 1904). L"tur i. the 1920s, the tust fully air-conditioned office building would be erected by architect George Willis: the Milam Building in San Antonio, Texas (192A).re the long. P:fug years before air conditioning became common, office buildings generally lacked all but the most primiuve artificial ventilation (vertical air shafts in the toilet rooms and sometimes fresh air inlets behind the radiators). lbnants were obliged to leave their windows open through the summe4, despite air that was ruil of soot and would remain so until strict clean-air ordinances began to be enacted at mid-20th century. In due course, technologicar progress and economic change would multiply the size of the new buiidings and their efficiency as"places of business. steam-powered rapid transiilines to bring in the workeis would make them mone accessible to gutlyrng residents. si would the improved roads and widespread automobile ownership that followed Henry Ford,s application of mass production techniqrres urd -urr--arket pricing to the private car. Commuters, customers and crients who had migratea outward toward the suburbs could now find their way downtown to"the new office buildings with relative ease, and once there could enjoy the views from their upper-floor offices, however those views might be tbscured by coal smoke and neighboring buildings. 1s See Lehman. of Architectural 11 -F*V:lopedia Design, Engineering and Construction, Wiley & Sons, 1989). vol.3 (New York: John
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L4 PART I Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets consequences of the new situation. Tenants in the new offices, separated from the manufacturing and agricultural operations that fed them, grew more speciabzed, their workers forming a new white-collar class that seldom had to dirty its hands with physical work. As it multiplied, this class would make new demands and force massive social changes. While New York had almost 2,500 of the 4,800 buildings in 7929 that were 10 stories or highea many other cities had significant numbers. Chicago, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Detroit and Boston as well as New York each had more than 100 such buildings, while St. Louis, Pittsburgh, Kansas Crty, San Francisco, Cleveland, Seattle, Baltimore, Minneapolis, Tulsa, Dallas and Houston each had more than 30.1e Chicago's stainless-steel-clad Inland Steel Building (1955-57), by international style architects Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, paved the way for new cladding materials. (Plnto W lon Miller/Hedrich-Blessing, Courtesy of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill)
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L6 PART I Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets The design of these buildhgr, which rose straight up from the ground without setbacks and left much of the lot open, would also encourage major revisions to the zoning ordinances of New York, Chicago and other cities. Inside, the space was laid out to the new standards made possible by central air conditioning. The Inland Steel Buildin g, for example, had all its mechanical services in a separate core, allowing its office tower to be designed without interior columns. Central air conditioning, no\m refined to provide for supply and return zorres, and a rising demand for the larger spaces it made possible, encouraged the new buildings to increase their floor sizes, though floor plates of 15,000 square feet or less remained common. At the same time, new building forms were made possible by zoning reforms such as those of the Chicago Zoning Ordinance of 1957 and the New York Ordinance of 1967, which set limits on floor area ratios instead of imposirg height limits or requiring upper-floor setbacks. These reforms, reflective of international style architectural canons, allowed greater desigr flexibility and encouraged setbacks at grade rather than at the upper floors, often granting bonuses for arcades, plazas and other amenities.2l Technology had been evolving behind the scenes during the quiet years, and elevator manufacturers like Otis and Westinghouse were ready with new high-speed operatorless systems that could move people to the top of a 4O-story building in less than a minute, popping eyes as well as ears. A shift from direct to alternating electric current and improvements in fluorescent lighting (invented 1938) reduced po\ /er consumption while encouraglng light levels to rise. Oil and sometimes gas-fired boilers had begun to replace the stoker-fired coal boilers of an earlier era. Lateq, electric heating, cheaper to install and maintain, would have its turn. Central air conditioning, still fairly rare in the 1950s because of its cost, became common and in fact almost mandatory during the 1960s. It reduced ceiling heights to as little as eight feet, though ceilings of nine feet or more remained the standard in Class A buildings. Also possible with air conditioning were floor plans far larger and more flexible than in the past, with greater core-to-perimeter distances and greater amounts of windowless space lighted by fluorescent fixtures. Older buildings through the period were often retrofitted with window air conditioners or package units serving selected tenants. Meanwhile asphalt, rubber tile and carpet floor coverings were becoming common, and fire-resistant gypsum-based plasterboard, generally mounted on structural tile block or metal studs for reduced flammability, had appeared as a lower-cost partitioning material which allowed faster 27 Seymour Toll, Zoned America (New York: Grossm an, 1969).
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18 PART I Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets become a serious problem for many building owners and manufacturers of building materials because of the health hazard it posed. Electric heating systems and floor-to-ceiling windows had become common by the 1960s, but the energy crisis of 1973-74, when oil prices soared and people lined up for gasoline on the streets, yielded a new generation of buildings designed to conserve energy. These tight new structures were heated mairly by gas, often with provision for the use of oil as an alternate fuel. They came with low rooflines, reduced heat-wastit g perimeter wall areas, insulating skins sealed to minimize heat loss, and smaller double -glazed non-openable metal sash equipped with thermal barriers. In the 1980s a new problem was becoming apparent. The artificiallysupplied air which replaced air that had formerly come in through the windows allowed toxic substances and germs released in the course of ordinary operations to accumulate inside, making breathing a riskier proposition. Also of growing concern was the danger of terrorist attack, which led many o\ /ners to rearrange their building entrances and install alarm systems for greater security. In Chicago, major structures such as the ohn Hancock Center (Skidmore, Owings and Merrill, 197A), Sears Tower (SOM, L974), the Amoco Building (Edward Durrell Stone with Perkins and Will, L974) and Water Tower Place, an instant mixed-use landmark (Loebl, Schlossman, Bennett and Dart, 1975-76), dominated their market for several years. Far from the Chicago scene in the roughneck city of Houston, a new architectural standard would be set by ohnson and Burgee's Pennzoil Place (1972-76), which demonstrated to the world that good architecture could be worth its cost. Meanwhile, in New York, Donald Trump was provingattrump Tower (Swanke, Hayden, Connell and Partners, L976) that mixed-use design could be sybaritic as well as more or less functional. THE EASY EIGHTIES By 1982, when the country experienced a serious manufacturing recession and blue-collar jobs were lost by the million, people began to believe that the future of the United States luy with the service industries. Large amounts of space would be necessary to accommodate their growth, much of it in the suburbs where suburban baby boomers could get white-collar jobs close to home. The impact of IBM's first personal computer was multiplied by the proliferation of the photocopieq, the telefax and the modem, novelties which greatly increased the flow of information and stimulated the creation of new businesses. Communication via satellite, fiber optic cable and laser printing increased unbelievably the speed of the information flow and enabled companies to move anywhere.
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20 PART I Characteristics of Office Buildings and Office Markets NOT THE END OF THE STORY As the new century approaches, it is evident that the shape and function of the office building will continue to evolve, though the directions they will take are not yet clearly discernible. So will the office building's investment dynamics and its relationship to its community. Like a living creature, the office building must adapt to the vagaries of chance and change, as it always has done in the past, forever ready to make new-and possibly quite different-economic and social contributions to the constantly unfolding capitalist society which gave it birth. ABOUT THE AUTHORS ]ared Shlaes, CRE, MAI, is the author of Real Estate Counseling in a Plain Brown Wrnpper, published by the Counselors of Real Estate in 7992. Recently retired as director for special real estate services for Arthur Andersen & Co., Shlaes had also been founder-president of Shlaes & Co., a real estate counseling and appraisal firm, and senior vice president of Arthur Rubloff & Co. in charge of counseling and appraisal services. Shlaes is a national authority on the economics of landmark properties and the use of preservation easements, and was co-originator of the internationally acclaimed Chicago Plan for landmark preservation, a transferable development rights scheme. Marc A. Weiss, Ph.D", is director of the Real Estate Development Research Center and associate professor in the Graduate School of Architecture, Plannitg and Preservation at Columbia University. He previously taught at MIT. He is author of The Rise of tlrc Community Builders and co-author of ReaI Estnte Deaelopment Principles and Process. Weiss has written many articles on urban development and is now writing and producing Prime Property, a public television series on the history of American real estate. He holds an undergraduate degree from Stanford University and a Ph.D. from the University of California, Berkeley.