Chapter 3: Protocols and Services 3.1: 3 - The Internet Protocol IP 3.2: Routing in the Internet 3.3: Auxiliary Protocols 3.4: Quality of Service 3.5: 4 - Transport Protocols TCP and UDP OSI Reference Model Application Presentation Session Chapter 4: Application Protocols Internet Protocols Chapter 2: Computer Networks Transport Network Data Link Physical Page 1
3 2 is responsible only for the transmission of data between adjacent computers. 3: Network (Internet) Boundary between network carrier and customer Control of global traffic: Coupling of sub-networks Global addressing Routing of data packets (Global flow control) Page 2
s in the Network Application Process Application Process Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical Host A Routers in the network receive frames from layer 2, extract the layer 3 content (packet) and decide due to the global address, to which outgoing connection the packet must be passed on. Accordingly the packet becomes payload of a new frame and is sent. Network Data Link Physical Router A Network Data Link Physical Router B Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical Host B Page 3
Two Fundamental Philosophies Connectionless communication Data are transferred as packets of variable length Source and destination address are being indicated Sending is made spontaneously without reservations Very easy to implement But: packets can take different ways to the receiver (wrong order of packets at the receiver, differences in transmission delay, unreliability) Connection-oriented communication Connection establishment: - Selection of the communication partner resp. of the terminal, - Examination of the communication readiness, - Establishment of a connection Data transmission: Information exchange between the partners Connection termination: Release of the terminals and channels Advantages: no change of sequence, reservation of capacity, flow control Page 4
Connectionless Communication Computer A Computer B 1 3 2 Computer C Message is divided into packets Access is always possible, small susceptibility to faults Alternative paths for the packets Additional effort in the nodes: Store-and-Forward network Keyword: Packet Switching Page 5
Connection-Oriented Communication Computer A Computer B 1 3 2 virtual connection Computer C Simple communication method Keyword: Circuit Switching Defined way between the participants Switching nodes connect the lines Exclusive use of the line (telephone) or virtual connection: Establishment of a connection over a (possibly even packet switching) network Page 6
On the Way to Today's Internet Implemented in the Internet in connectionless communication. Why? Origin of the Internet: First interconnection of computers in the 1960ies A particularly important initiative was initiated by the ARPA (Advanced Research Project Agency, with military interests) The participation of the military was the only sensible way to implement such an ambitious and extremely expensive project The OSI specification was still in developing phase Result: ARPANET (predecessor of today's Internet) Page 7
ARPANET Design objective for ARPANET The operability of the network should remain intact even after a largest disaster possible, e.g. a nuclear war, thus high connectivity and packet switching Network computer and host computer are separated ARPA Advanced Research Projects Agency ARPANET Subnet 1969 Page 8
ARPANET A subnet consists of: Interface Message Processors (IMPs), which are connected by rented transmission circuits. High connectivity (in order to guarantee the demanded reliability) A node consists of an IMP (predecessor of a router) a host Several protocols for the communication between IMP-IMP, host-imp, Host-IMP Protocol Host-host Protocol Source IMP to destination IMP protocol Subnet IMP-IMP Protocol Host IMP Page 9
The Beginning of ARPANET XDS 940 Stanford Research Institutes (SRI) IMP IBM 360/75 IMP University of California Santa Barbara (UCSB) IMP XDS 1-7 IMP California University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) DEK PDP-10 University of Utah ARPANET (December 1969) Page 10
Evolution by ARPANET Very fast evolution of ARPANET within shortest time: SRI Utah Illinois WITH SRI Utah Illinois Stanford Harvard Aberdeen UCSB USC WITH UCSB UCLA Harvard UCLA USC CMU ARPANET in April 1972 ARPANET in September 1972 Page 11
Interworking Problem: Interworking! Simultaneously to the ARPANET further (smaller) networks were developed. All the LANs, MANs, WANs had different protocols, media, could not be interconnected at first and were not be able to communicate with each another. Therefore: Development of uniform protocols on the transport- and network level (without a too accurate definition of these levels, in particular without exact coordination with the respective OSI levels). Result: TCP/IP networks. Page 12
TCP/IP Developed 1974: Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) Requirements: Fault tolerance Maximal possible reliability and availability Flexibility (i.e. suitability for applications with very different requirements); however, less or not suitable for real-time applications such as audio or video. The result: Network protocol IP; (Internet Protocol; connectionless) End-to-end protocols TCP (Transmission Control Protocol; connection-oriented) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol; connectionless) The ARPA network evolved by being connected to lots of other networks to a worldwide available network (called Internet ) and gradually lost its early militarily dominated character. Page 13
Internet What does it mean: a computer is in the Internet? - Use of the TCP/IP protocol suite - Accessibility over an IP address - Ability to send IP packets In its early period, the Internet was limited to the following applications: E-mail Remote login File transfer electronic mail (partly because the US post was not very reliable and the different time zones made telephone accessibility of the telephone partner more difficult) running jobs on external computers exchange of data between computers Page 14
Internet and Intranet Internet Communication via the TCP/IP protocols Local operators control and finance Global coordination by some organizations Internet Providers provide access points for private individuals Intranet Enterprise-internal communication with the same protocols and applications as in the Internet. Computers are sealed off from the global Internet (data security) Heterogeneous network structures from different branches can be integrated with TCP/IP easily Use of applications like in the WWW for internal data exchange Page 15
The TCP/IP Protocol Suite HTTP FTP Telnet SMTP DNS SNMP TFTP Application Protocols TCP UDP Transport IGMP ICMP IP ARP RARP Internet Networks Ethernet Token Ring Token Bus Wireless LAN Host-tonetwork Page 16
Sandglass Model E-Mail, File Transfer, Video Conferencing, HTTP, SMTP, FTP, Because of the small number of central protocols but the large number of applications and communication networks, the TCP/IP protocol stack (and applications/networks) can be represented like a sandglass. Twisted Pair, Optical Fiber, Radio, Page 17
Internet Raw division into three tasks: Data transfer over a global network Route decision at the sub-nodes (chapter 3.2) Control of the network- or transmission status (chapter 3.3) Routing Protocols Transfer Protocols: IPv4, IPv6 Routing Tables Control Protocols: ICMP, ARP, RARP, IGMP Page 18
IP Internet Protocol IP: connectionless, unreliable transmission of datagrams/packets ( Best Effort ) Transparent end-to-end communication between the hosts Routing, interoperability between different network types IP addressing (IPv4): Uses 32-bit addresses Hierarchical addressing 3 network classes 4 address formats (including multicast) Fragmenting and reassembling of packets Maximum packet size: 64 kbyte (in practice: 1500 byte) At present commonly used: Version 4 of IP protocol: IPv4 Page 19
IP Packet 32 bits (4 bytes) Version IHL Identification Type of Service DM F F Total length Fragment Offset Time to Live Protocol Source Address Header Checksum IP header, normally 20 bytes Destination Address Options (variable, 0-40 byte) Padding Data (variable) Header Data Page 20
The IP Header (1) Version: IP version number (for simultaneous use of several IP versions) IHL: IP Header Length (in words of 32 bit; between 5 and 15, depending upon options) Type of Service: Indication of the desired service: Combination of reliability (e.g. file transfer) and speed (e.g. audio) 3 bit priority (0 = normal data, 7 = control packet) Precedence Delay Total Length: Length of the entire packet (in byte, 2 16-1 = 65535 bytes) Identification: definite marking of a packet Time to Live (TTL): Lifetime of packets is limited to maximal 255 Hops (endless circling of packets in the network is prevented). In principle, also the processing time in routers is to be considered, which does not happen in practice. The counter is reduced with each hop, with 0 the packet is discarded. D T R unused Throughput Reliability Page 21
The IP Header (2) DF: Don't Fragment. All routers must forward packets up to a size of 576 byte, everything beyond that is optional. Larger packets with set DF-bit therefore cannot take each possible way in the network. MF: More Fragments. 1 - further fragments follow. 0 - last fragment of a datagram) Fragment Offset: Sequence number of the fragments of a packet (2 13 = 8192 possible fragments). The offset states, at which place of a packet (counted in multiples of 8 byte) a fragment belongs. From this a maximum length of 8192 * 8 byte = 65536 byte results for a packet. Protocol: Which transport protocol is used in the data part (UDP, TCP, )? To which transport process the packet is to be passed on? Header Checksum: 1 s complement of the sum of the 16-bit half words of the header. Must be computed with each hop (since TTL changes) Source Address/Destination address: Network and host numbers of sending and receiving computer. This information is used by routers for the routing decision. Page 22
Fragmentation A too large or too small packet length prevents a good performance. Additionally there are often size restrictions (buffer, protocols with length specifications, standards, allowed access time to a channel, ) The data length must be a multiple of 8 byte. Exception: the last fragment, there only the remaining data are packed, padding to 8 byte units does not take place. If the DF -bit is set, the fragmentation is prevented. Ident. Flags Offset Data 777 x00 0 0 1200 bytes IP header 777 x01 0 0 511 777 x01 64 512 1023 777 x00 128 1024 1200 Page 23
The IP Header (3) Options: Prepare for future protocol extensions. Coverage: Multiple of 4 byte, therefore possibly padding is necessary. At present, 5 options are defined, however none is supported by common routers: Security: How secret is the transported information? (Application e.g. in military: Avoidance of crossing of certain countries/networks.) Strict Source Routing: Complete path defined from the source to the destination host by providing the IP addresses of all routers which are crossed. (Use by system managers e.g. in case of damaged routing tables or for time measurements) Loose Source Routing: The carried list of routers must be passed in indicated order. Additional routers are permitted. Record Route: Recording of the IP addresses of the routers passed. (Maximally 9 IP addresses possible, nowadays too few.) Time Stamp: Records router addresses (32 bits) as well as a time stamp for each router (32 bits). Application e.g. in fault management. Page 24
IP Addressing Unique IP address for each host and router. IP addresses are 32 bits long and are used in the Source Address as well as in Destination Address field of IP packets. The IP address is structured hierarchical and refers to a certain network, i.e. machines with connection to several networks have several IP addresses. Structure of the address: Network address for physical network (e.g. 137.226.0.0) and host address for a machine in the addressed network (e.g. 137.226.12.221) 32 bits 126 networks with 2 24 host each Class (starting from 1.0.0.0) A B 0 Network Host 10 Network Host 16383 networks with 2 16 hosts each (starting from 128.0.0.0) C 110 Network Host D 1110 Multicast address E 1111 Reserved for future use 2097151 networks (LANs) with 256 hosts each (starting from 192.0.0.0) Page 25
IP Addresses 137.226.12.0 137.226.112.0 137.226.12.1 137.226.112.1 Router 137.226.12.21 137.226.112.78 Binary format Dotted Decimal Notation 10001001 11100010 00001100 00010101 137.226.12.21 Each node has (at least) one world-wide unique IP address Router or gateways, which link several networks with one another, have for each network an assigned IP address Page 26
IP Addressing - Examples The representation of the 32-bit addresses is divided into 4 sections of each 8 bits: 137.226.12.174 10001001 11100010 00001100 10101110 Class B address Special addresses: Class B address of RWTH Aachen 0 0 0... 0 0 0 Subnet (Computer science 4) This host Terminal Shadow 0 0... 0 0 Host Host in this network 1 1 1... 1 1 1 Broadcast in own local area network Network 1 1 1... 1 1 1 Broadcast in the remote network 127 arbitrary Loop, no sending to the network Page 27
Address Space 6,25% 6,25% 50,00% 12,50% Klasse Class A Klasse Class B Klasse Class C Klasse Class D Klasse Class E 25,00% Page 28
Problems IP Addresses are scarce Nobody had thought about such a strong growth of the Internet (otherwise one would have defined longer addresses from the beginning). Too many Class A address blocks were assigned in the first Internet years. Inefficient use of the address space. Example: if 500 devices in an enterprise are to be attached, a Class B address block is needed, but by this unnecessarily more than 65.000 host addresses are blocked. Solution approach Extension of the address space within IPv6 against the actual version IPv4 IP version 6 has 128 bit for addresses 7 x 10 23 IP addresses per square meter of the earth's surface (including the oceans!) one address per molecule on earth's surface! But: The success of IPv6 is not by any means safe! (The introduction of IPv6 is tremendously difficult: Interoperability, costs, migration strategies,.) Page 29
IP Subnets Problem: Class C-networks are very small, Class B-networks often already too large. Therefore exists the possibility of dividing an through the IP-address identified network into so-called subnets. Examples for subnets: subnet mask 255.255.255.0 Ethernet A 128.10.1.0 Rest of the Internet All traffic for 128.10.0.0 Router 128.10.1.3 128.10.1.8 128.10.1.70 128.10.1.26 128.10.2.1 Ethernet A Host Ethernet B 128.10.2.0 Ethernet A Host Ethernet A Host Ethernet B Host 128.10.2.3 128.10.2.133 128.10.2.18 Ethernet B Host Ethernet B Host Page 30
IP Subnets Within an IP network address block, several physical networks can be addressed Some bits of the host address part are used as network ID A Subnet mask identifies the abused bits Class B address Network Host Subnet Mask 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 10 Network Subnet Host All hosts of a network should use the same subnet mask Routers can determine through combination of an IP address and a subnet mask, into which subnet a packet must be sent. Page 31
IP Subnets - Computation of the Destination The entrance router of the RWTH, which receives the IP packet, does not know, where host 12.21 is located. 137. 226. 12. 21 0111 10001001 11100010 00001100 00010101 AND IP address 255. 255. 255. 0 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 1111 0000 0000 Subnet mask 137. 226. 1000 1001 1110 0010 12. 0 0000 1100 0000 0000 Network of the addressed host The router computes the subnet 137.226.12 and sends the packet to the router, which links this subnet. Page 32
Example of a Subnet Assigned network address for the RWTH: 137.226.0.0 137.226.12.0 Info IV 254 hosts per subnet: Hosts have the addresses 1 254 0 is reserved for the subnet 255 is reserved for broadcast in the subnet 137.226.8.0 137.226.112.0 137.227.10.0 Subnet mask for each subnet = 255.255.255.0 Other format for writing of addresses in subnets: 137.226.12.221/24 Number of bits for (sub)network address Page 33
More flexible Addressing Problem: static categorization of IP addresses - how to use the very small class C networks efficiently? Remedy: Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) Weakening of the rigid categorization by replacing the static classes by network prefixes of variable length Example: 137.250.3/17: The first 17 bits of the IP address are used for the network identification Used together with routing: Backbone router, e.g. on transatlantic links only considers the first 13 bits; thus small routing tables, little cost of routing decision Routers of an ISP considers e.g. only the first 15 bits Routers in company networks consider e.g. the first 25 bits Page 34
NAT Network Address Translation Only routers, which are attached to the external world need a global address Assign only one (or a few) IP addresses to a company Each internal computer uses an own IP address. For this purpose, private address blocks are reserved, which everyone may use within its own networks and which are never routed in the Internet: 10.0.0.0-10.255.255.255 172.16.0.0-172.31.255.255 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 When leaving the own network, an address translation takes place Problem: how can the re-translation into the internal IP address take place? Solution: Network Address Port Translation store additional port information in your entrance router (NAT box) Page 35
NAPT Network Address Port Translation Protocol Port (local) IP (local) Port (global) IP (global) IP (destination) Port (destination) TCP 1066 10.0.0.1 1066 198.60.42.12 137.226.12.221 21 TCP 1500 10.0.0.7 1500 198.60.42.12 207.17.4.21 80 Page 36
The new IP - IPv6 Why changing the protocol, when IPv4 works well? Dramatically increasing need for new IP addresses Improved support of real time applications Security mechanisms (Authentication and data protection) Differentiation of types of service, in particular for real time applications Support of mobility (hosts can go on journeys without address change) Simplification of the protocol in order to ensure a faster processing Reduction of the extent of the routing tables Option for further development of the protocol Standardized: IPv6 (December 1995, RFC 1883) Page 37
IPv6 - Characteristics Address size 128-bit addresses (8 groups of each 4 hexadecimal numbers) Improved option mechanism Simplifies and accelerates the processing of IPv6 packets in routers Auto-configuration of addresses Dynamic allocation of IPv6-addresses Improvement of the address flexibility Anycast address: Reach any one out of several Support of the reservation of resources Marking of packets for special traffic Security mechanisms Authentication and Privacy Simpler header structure: IHL: redundant, no variable length of header by new option mechanism Protocol, fragmentation fields: redundant, moved into the options Checksum: Already done by layer 2 and 4 Page 38
IPv6 Main Header Version: IP version number Priority: 4 bits for priority. 1 - News, 4 - ftp, 6 - telnet, 8 to 15 - real time traffic Flow label: virtual connection with certain characteristics/requirements PayloadLen: packet length after the 40- byte header Next Header: 8-bit selector. Indicates the type of the following extension header (or the transport header) HopLimit: At each node decremented by one. At zero the packet is discarded Source Address: The address of the original sender of the packet Destination Address: The address of the receiver (not necessarily the final destination, if there is an optional routing header) Next Header/Data: if an extension header is specified, it follows after the main header. Otherwise, the data are following 1 4 8 16 24 32 Version (4) Priority (4) PayloadLen (16) Flow label (24) Source Address (128) Destination Address (128) Next Header/Data Next Header (8) HopLimit (8) The prefix of an address characterizes geographical areas, providers, local internal areas, Page 39
IPv6 Extension Headers Optional data follows in extension headers. There are 6 headers defined: Hop by Hop (information for single links) All routers have to examine this field. Momentarily only the support of Jumbograms (packets exceeding the normal IP packet length) is defined (length specification). Routing (definition of a full or partly specified route) Fragmentation (administration of fragments) Difference to IPv4: Only the source can do fragmentation. Routers for which a packet is too large, only send an error message back to the source. Authentication (of the sender) Ciphered data Destination options (additional information for the destination) Page 40
IPv4 vs. IPv6: Header 4 8 16 32 4 8 16 32 Priority Version En IHL Type OF of Service service Totally Length length Version En Flow Label label Identification Time to Protocol Live Fragment offset Header Checksum NEXT Next PayloadLen Header headers SOURCE Source ADDRESS Address Hop Limit limit SOURCE Source ADDRESS Address Destination ADDRESS Address Options (variable)/padding DATA Data SOURCE Source ADDRESS Address SOURCE Source ADDRESS Address SOURCE Source ADDRESS Address Destination ADDRESS Address Destination ADDRESS Address The IPv6 header is longer, but this is only caused by the longer addresses. Otherwise it is better sorted and thus faster to process by routers. Destination ADDRESS Address Destination ADDRESS Address NEXT Next Header header/data/ Data Page 41