Kriminalita a vnímanie bezpečia v Európe

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1 Kriminalita a vnímanie bezpečia v Európe Michal Kentoš, Spoločenskovedný ústav SAV, Košice, kentos@saske.sk Mária Homišinová, Spoločenskovedný ústav SAV, Košice, homisin@saske.sk Daniela Husovská, Spoločenskovedný ústav SAV, Košice, husovska@saske.sk KENTOŠ, Michal HOMIŠINOVÁ, Mária HUSOVSKÁ, Daniela. Criminality and safety perceptions in Europe. Individual and Society, 2012, Vol. 15, No The focus of the present analysis is on the perceived security of citizens from different European countries. We examined the association between the subjective perceived security and the objective indicators of criminality in different European countries. Perceived safety. Crime. Violence. Úvod do problematiky Vnímanie bezpečia predstavuje fenomén, ktorý ovplyvňuje každodenné aktivity jedincov. Ak je určitá lokalita, produkt, či udalosť vnímaná ako nebezpečná, prevláda tendencia vyhnúť sa jej (napr. vyhýbanie sa alkoholickým nápojom počas tzv. metanolovej kauzy, obmedzenie outdoorových aktivít vo večerných hodinách, zvýšenie ochrany osôb a majetku v rizikových oblastiach). Avšak nie sú to len bezpečnostné riziká prostredia, ktoré ovplyvňujú vnímanie bezpečia a následné rozhodovanie. Ako uvádza Jackson (2008) záujem výskumníkov sa čoraz viac orientuje na sociálne a psychologické charakteristiky jednotlivcov a spoločenstiev v konkrétnom životnom priestore. Ide o integráciu paralelných konštruktov sociológie sociálnej stability, sociálnej deviácie, kriminality a psychológie kognitívnych a emocionálnych reprezentácií rizika, miery anxiety, vulnerability. Uvedené základné konštrukty však nemožno študovať a interpretovať izolovane. Štúdium vnímania bezpečnosti navyše zahŕňa skúmanie generovaných reprezentácií, častokrát konštruovanými médiami a jednotlivcami, o príčinách, súvislostiach a dôsledkoch bezpečnostných incidentov. Informácie o rozličných bezpečnostných incidentoch cirkulujú v podobe sociálnych reprezentácií a ovplyvňujú každodenné správanie sa jednotlivcov. Ako v tejto súvislosti uvádzajú Heath, Gilbert, (1996), médiá venujú kriminalite nepomerne veľký mediálny priestor v porovnaní s jej výskytom. V tomto kontexte sú reakcie na rozličné kriminálne udalosti komplexným javom založeným na senzáciechtivosti, psychologických a sociálnych charakteristikách prijímateľov (zraniteľnosť, predchádzajúce skúsenosti, vzdelanie, sociálna izolácia).výskum percepcie bezpečia býva najčastejšie konceptualizovaný prostredníctvom dvoch skupín modelov. Prvú skupinu tvorí štúdium socio-demografických premenných ako prediktorov vnímanej miery bezpečia. V tejto súvislosti boli zistené negatívnejšie hodnotenia bezpečia ženami (Callanan, Teasdale, 2009), mladými ľuďmi (Lane, Meeker, 2003), jedincami s nízkym dosiahnutým vzdelaním (Kennedy, Silverman, 1985) a obyvateľmi miest (Mela, 2003). Druhú skupinu predstavujú tzv. alternatívne modely vnímania bezpečia, ktoré sa snažia prekonať obmedzenia tradičných modelov rozšírením problematiky o výskum 1 Publikačný výstup je súčasťou riešenia grantu VEGA, projektu č. 2/0173/12 s názvom Sociálne a osobnostné aspekty vnímania bezpečnosti.

2 konštruovania sociálnych reprezentácii rizika a s ním spojených konzekvencií na úrovni správania. Výskumy alternatívnych modelov vnímanej bezpečnosti však majú prevažne deskriptívny charakter a narážajú na veľké množstvo metodologických problémov nejasné vymedzenie premenných a spôsobov ich merania. Okrem uvedených modelov sa výskum orientuje aj na medzikultúrne rozdiely vnímania bezpečia vo vzťahu k objektívnym ukazovateľom. Z výsledkov medzinárodných výskumov uskutočnených na reprezentatívnych vzorkách respondentov vyplýva, že skúsenosti s kriminalitou (priama viktimizácia) a subjektívne hodnotenie bezpečia (otázky nepriamej viktimizácie, napr. obavy) sa diametrálne líšia (Kentoš, 2008, 2012). Z uvedeného vyplýva viacero metodologických nedostatkov. Subjektívne vnímanie bezpečia je výsledkom multikauzálnych reprezentácií a skúseností s bezpečnostnými incidentmi, ktoré majú neraz imaginárnu (predstavovanú) podobu a je zložité uvedené reprezentácie spoľahlivo postihnúť. Ohrozením objektívnych mier kriminality je najmä počet evidovaných trestných činov, nie spáchaných. Iným nedostatkom indexov kriminality sú rozdiely v evidencii trestných činov medzi jednotlivými krajinami. Zároveň sme zaznamenali významné rozdiely v miere dôvery v políciu a súdy (Výrost, 2012), čo môže konzekventne ovplyvňovať evidenciu spáchaných trestných činov. Na základe uvedeného nás zaujímalo aký je vzťah medzi subjektívnymi hodnoteniami bezpečia v jednotlivých krajinách vo vzťahu k vybraným ukazovateľom kriminality. Metóda Výskumný súbor Analyzované dáta pochádzajú z piatich kôl medzinárodného výskumného projektu European Social Survey (2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2010). Do analýz boli zahrnutí respondenti tých krajín, ktoré sa zúčastnili všetkých uvedených kôl. Výskumu sa zúčastnili obyvatelia vo veku rokov (M=47,51, SD=18,53). Vo všetkých zúčastnených krajinách boli populačné výbery reprezentatívne. Následne boli dáta vážené vzhľadom na základné populačné kritériá rod, vek a vzdelanie. Základné údaje o respondentoch v jednotlivých krajinách uvádzame v tabuľke 1. Tabuľka 1: Účastníci výskumu v jednotlivých krajinách a kolách ESS. Country Austria Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Germany Denmark Estonia Spain Finland France United Kingdom Greece Croatia Hungary

3 Switzerland Ireland Israel Italy Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Poland Portugal Russia Sweden Slovenia Slovakia Turkey Ukraine Total Prázdne bunky znamenajú, že sa uvedeného kola ESS krajina nezúčastnila Nástroje Pre potreby výskumu sme z dotazníka projektu ESS použili otázky, ktoré mapujú vnímanie bezpečia. Problematika vnímania bezpečia bola skúmaná na základe hodnotenia individuálnej bezpečnosti v konkrétnom bezpečnostnom prostredí pomocou otázky Ako bezpečne sa cítite alebo by ste sa cítili prechádzať sa v mieste vášho bydliska po zotmení? (skóre vypočítané zo škály 1 4, kde 1 znamená veľmi bezpečne a 4 vôbec nie bezpečne). Zároveň boli zisťované očakávania respondentov vo vzťahu do budúcnosti prostredníctvom otázky Ako často, ak vôbec, sa obávate toho, že sa stanete obeťou násilného trestného činu? a Ako často, ak vôbec, sa obávate toho, že váš dom/byt bude vykradnutý? (skóre vypočítané zo škály 1 4, kde 1 znamená nikdy a 4 vždy). Ako objektívne ukazovatele kriminality sme pre signifikantné rozdiely v evidencii trestných činov v jednotlivých krajinách zvolili databázu United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Jej výhodou je celosvetové pokrytie bazálnych indikátorov kriminality a ich overovanie z viacerých nezávislých zdrojov. Pre potreby výskumu sme vybrali ukazovatele, ktoré zodpovedajú subjektívnym indikátorom počet vrážd na obyvateľov, počtom úmyselných ublížení na zdraví na obyvateľov a počet vlámaní na obyvateľov. Výsledky V nasledujúcom prehľade uvádzame súvislosti subjektívnych hodnotení bezpečia a objektívnych ukazovateľom kriminality. Pre prehľadnosť v prvej časti uvádzame len údaje z posledného zisťovania ESS z roku 2010 a k nim prislúchajúce ukazovatele kriminality z rovnakého obdobia. V ďalšej časti sú prezentované údaje z ostatných kôl projektu ESS ( ) vo vzťahu k jednotlivým mieram kriminality. V prvej časti analýzy sme sa sústredili na problematiku vnímaného bezpečia v medzinárodnom kontexte. V tejto súvislosti sme uskutočnili analýzu súvislostí priemerných hodnotení vnímaného bezpečia vo vzťahu k počtu vrážd na obyvateľov v krajinách, ktoré sa zúčastnili projektu ESS. Výsledky uvádzame v grafe 1. Graf 1: Súvislosť odpovedí respondentov na otázku Ako bezpečne sa cítite alebo by ste sa cítili prechádzať sa v mieste vášho bydliska po zotmení? a počtov vrážd na obyvateľov v roku 2010.

4 Ako vyplýva z výsledkov medzinárodného porovnania, účastníci výskumu hodnotili úroveň vnímanej bezpečnosti v jednotlivých krajinách rozdielne, čo implikuje interpretáciu odlišnej úrovne bezpečnosti v týchto krajinách. Ako najviac bezpečné posudzovali svoje okolie respondenti severských krajín Európy Nórska, Dánska a Fínska. Naopak najnižšie hodnotenia bezpečnostného prostredia vykazovali respondenti z Grécka, Ukrajiny a Maďarska. Aj výsledky slovenských respondentov patrili do tejto skupiny. Ak však posudzujeme obe dimenzie súčasne, je zrejmé, že pocit bezpečia nesúvisí s počtom vrážd v jednotlivých krajinách. V Nemecku, Veľkej Británii a Francúzsku, ktoré evidujú viac ako 600 vrážd na obyvateľov ročne, hodnotia respondenti konkrétnu bezpečnostnú situáciu pozitívnejšie v porovnaní s krajinami ako Slovensko, Bulharsko a Grécko, kde bol počet vrážd pod hranicou 150 na obyvateľov. Graf 2: Súvislosť odpovedí respondentov na otázku Ako často, ak vôbec, sa obávate toho, že sa stanete obeťou násilného trestného činu? a počtov úmyselných ublížení na zdraví na obyvateľov v roku 2010.

5 Odlišným ukazovateľom percepcie bezpečia je monitorovanie obáv respondentov z toho, že sa stanú obeťou násilného trestného činu. Kým v prípade vlámania je rizikom odcudzenie resp. poškodenie majetku, násilná kriminalita má priamy dopad na život, zdravie a integritu jedinca. S tým súvisí aj vplyv hrozby násilia na každodenné aktivity jednotlivcov, najmä však na potenciálne zraniteľné skupiny. Uvedená problematika bola skúmaná prostredníctvom otázky Ako často, ak vôbec, sa obávate toho, že sa stanete obeťou násilného trestného činu? (skóre vypočítané zo škály 1 4, kde 1 znamená nikdy a 4 vždy). Z výsledkov (graf 2) je zrejmé, že najmenšie obavy vykazovali respondenti v Chorvátsku, Slovinsku, Nórsku a Dánsku. Je zaujímavé, že respondenti v Chorvátsku a Slovinsku takmer nepociťovali obavy z násilia. Naopak zvýšené obavy z násilného trestného činu vykazovali respondenti v Grécku. Zaujímavé sú pomerne zvýšené obavy respondentov na Slovensku. Ak však súčasne porovnáme strach z násilia s počtom úmyselných ublížení na zdraví, zistíme, že v krajinách s relatívne vysokou mierou násilnej kriminality sú hodnotenia respondentov pomerne pozitívne. V nadväznosti na predchádzajúcu otázku boli ako ďalší indikátor problematiky bezpečnosti monitorované obavy z majetkovej trestnej činnosti prostredníctvom otázky Ako často, ak vôbec, máte obavy z toho, že váš dom/byt bude vykradnutý? (skóre vypočítané zo škály 1 4, kde 1 znamená nikdy a 4 vždy). Výsledky uvádzame v grafe 3. Graf 3: Súvislosť odpovedí respondentov na otázku Ako často, ak vôbec, sa obávate toho, že váš dom/byt bude vykradnutý? a počtov vlámaní na obyvateľov v roku 2010.

6 Distribúcia odpovedí respondentov bola v porovnaní s predchádzajúcou otázkou mierne odlišná. Kým najväčšie obavy z vykradnutia vykazovali respondenti z Grécka, najmenšie obavy prezentovali respondenti z Chorvátska, Slovinska a Nórska. Zaujímavé sú v tejto súvislosti odpovede slovenských respondentov, ktorí vyjadrovali pomerne veľké obavy z vykradnutia, pričom respondenti z Maďarska, Českej republiky a Poľska boli oveľa optimistickejší. Aj v tomto prípade sa potvrdila nezávislosť subjektívnych obáv z vykradnutia a objektívnych údajov o vykradnutých nehnuteľnostiach. Záver Z prezentovaných výsledkov vyplýva viacero obsahových a metodologických zistení. Z analýzy súvislostí medzi subjektívnou percepciou bezpečia a objektívnymi dátami o mierach kriminality vyplýva ich vzájomná nezávislosť. V prípade subjektívnych indikátorov sme registrovali pomerne pozitívne hodnotenia v severských krajinách a relatívne negatívne hodnotenia na juhovýchode Európy. V tejto súvislosti je nutné osobitne spomenúť hodnotenia slovenských respondentov, ktorí dlhodobo vykazujú negatívnejšie hodnotenia bezpečnosti v porovnaní s inými krajinami. Údaje o počtoch násilných a majetkových trestných činov však uvedené obavy nepotvrdzujú. Absencia vzťahu medzi objektívnymi a subjektívnymi mierami nepriamo potvrdzuje existenciu ďalších sprostredkujúcich premenných facilitátorov a inhibítorov vnímania bezpečia a miera kriminality na nich participuje len čiastkovo. Z metodologického hľadiska je komparatívny výskum bezpečia limitovaný relevantnými databázami údajov o subjektívnych ako aj objektívnych ukazovateľoch. Tradičné skúmanie pocitu bezpečia (večerná prechádzka) komplikuje fakt, že respondenti si majú predstaviť

7 situáciu, s ktorou nemusia mať skúsenosti. Respondenti výskumov bezpečnosti navyše podceňujú pomerne komplikované otázky, (napr. o pravdepodobnosti, že sa stanú obeťou trestného činu) a nahrádzajú ich pomerne jednoduchými predstavami z pamäti (obraz seba ako obete trestného činu) (Jackson, 2008). Ako sme už naznačili v úvode, jednotlivé krajiny evidujú trestné činy nerovnakým spôsobom, čo značne komplikuje ich vzájomné porovnávanie. Obe databázy (ESS a UNODC), aj napriek nedostatkom, nemajú v súčasnosti hodnotnejšiu alternatívu. Criminality and safety perceptions in Europe The focus of the present analysis is on the perceived security of citizens from different European countries. We examined the association between the subjective perceived security and the objective indicators of criminality in different European countries. The subjective perceived security was investigated in three domains the perceived fear of dark abandoned places, the fear of being a victim of crime of violence, the fear of burglary into own apartment or house. Our results indicate that there isn t any association between the level of criminality in the country and the perceived security of their citizens. The citizens from Scandinavian countries perceived the highest level of security in comparison with other European citizens, but on the other hand their countries are not the most secure according to objective indicators of criminality. The lowest levels of security are perceived mostly in southeastern parts of Europe. Our findings are very interesting and need further investigations. Literatúra: CALLANAN, Valerie TEASDALE, Brent. An Exploration of Gender Differences in Measurement of Fear of Crime. In: Feminist Criminology, 2009, 4, 4, s FEDÁKOVÁ, Denisa. Vnímanie bezpečia na Slovensku a v susedných krajinách v piatich kolách ESS. In: Človek a spoločnosť, 2012, roč. 15, č. 4. HEATH, Linda GILBERT, Kevin. Mass media and fear of crime. In: American Behavioral Scientist, 1996, 39, JACKSON, Jonathan. Bridging the social and the psychological in the fear of crime. In: LEE, Murray and FARRALL, Stephen (eds.). Fear of crime: critical voices in an age of anxiety. Abingdon, UK : GlassHouse Press, 2008, pp KENNEDY, Leslie SILVERMAN, Robert. Perception of social diversity and fear of crime. In: Environment and Behavior, 1985, 17, KENTOŠ, Michal. Bezpečnosť, indikátory kvality života a religiozita. In: VÝROST, Jozef a kol. Európska sociálna sonda (ESS) 3. kolo na Slovensku. Prešov : Universum, 2008, s KENTOŠ, Michal. Vnímanie bezpečia. In: VÝROST, Jozef a kol. Európska sociálna sonda (ESS) 5. kolo na Slovensku. Prešov : Universum, 2012, s LANE, Jodi MEEKER, James. Ethnicity information sources and fear of crime. In: Deviant Behavior: an Interdisciplinary Journal, 2003, 24, s.1-26.

8 MELA, A. Urban insecurity : A multifaceted phenomenon. In: A. Mela (Ed.) The anxiogenous city. Napol : Liguori, 2003, s VÝROST, Jozef. Dôveryhodnosť polície a súdov očami respondentov. In: VÝROST, Jozef a kol. Európska sociálna sonda (ESS) 5. kolo na Slovensku. Prešov : Universum, 2012, s

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