Part II: Measuring Semantic Distance: Methods, Resources, and Applications

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2 VI Contents 2.4 Processing Pipeline Normalized Input Format: LDOC Tokenization Conversion to PAULA Integrating Analysis Components Analysis Components User Interface XML Inline Representation Visualization Current Developments and Conclusion 31 References 33 3 Processing Text-Technological Resources in Discourse Parsing 35 Henning Lobin, Harald Lungen, Mirco Hubert, Maja Bärenfänger 3.1 Introduction Corpus Architecture Parser Initialisation Cascade Step Generic Annotation Parser (GAP) Traversing the Chart Evaluation Conclusion 54 References 56 Part II: Measuring Semantic Distance: Methods, Resources, and Applications 4 Semantic Distance Measures with Distributional Profiles of Coarse-Grained Concepts 61 Graeme Hirst, Saif Mohammad 4.1 Semantic Distance Measures of Semantic Distance A Hybrid Method for Semantic Distance Measures Evaluation in Monolingual Applications Extension to Cross-Lingual Applications Method Evaluation Antonymy and Word Opposition Contrasting Categories Degree of Antonymy Evaluation Conclusion 76 References 77

3 Contents VII 5 Collecting Semantic Similarity Ratings to Connect Concepts in Assistive Communication Tools 81 Sonya Nikolova, Jordan Boyd-Graber, Christiane Fellbaum 5.1 Background and Motivation Aphasia ViVA: Visual Vocabulary for Aphasia The Design of ViVA The Organization of Words WORDNET and Evocation Building the Visual Vocabulary for Aphasia Collecting Inexpensive Ratings from Untrained Annotators Method Results Discussion 90 References 91 Part III: From Textual Data to Ontologies, from Ontologies to Textual Data 6 An Introduction to Hybrid Semantics: The Role of Cognition in Semantic Resources 97 Alessandro Oltramari 6.1 Introduction Statics and Dynamics of Cognition From Conceptualization to Specification: The Ontological Level Building 'Hybrid' Semantic Technologies The Project of a Collaborative Hybrid Semantic Resource Conclusion 107 References Modal Logic Foundations of Markup Structures in Annotation Systems Ill Marcus Kracht 7.1 Introduction Ill 7.2 Some Elements of Modal Logic Classes of Models Modal Logic and DOMs XPath Paths in Dynamic Logic Conclusion 126 References 126

4 VIII Contents 8 Adaptation of Ontological Knowledge from Structured Textual Data 129 Tonio Wandmacher, Ekaterina Ovchinnikova, Uwe Mönnich, Jens Michaelis, Kai-Uwe Kühnberger 8.1 Introduction Project Context Theoretical Background Annotation Graphs and Their Logical Representation Ontologies and Description Logics Automatic Extraction of Ontological Knowledge from Texts Existing Approaches in Ontology Learning Our Proposal Axiom Rewriting Procedure Transforming Textual Input into OWL Axioms Discussion Adaptivity Terminological Inconsistency Adaptation Procedure Conclusions and Future Work 150 References 151 Part IV: Multidimensional Representations: Solutions for Complex Markup 9 Ten Problems in the Interpretation of XML Documents 157 CM. Sperberg-McQueen, Claus Huitfeldt 9.1 Background Derivation of Inferences An Example The Ten Problems The Arity of Statements The Form of Inference Rules Deixis Inheritance Overriding Conflict and Union Milestones The Universe of Discourse Definite Descriptions and Multiple References to the Same Individual Certainty and Responsibility 172 References 173

5 Contents IX 10 Markup Infrastructure for the Anaphoric Bank: Supporting Web Collaboration 175 Massimo Poesio, Nils Diewald, Maik Stiihrenberg.Jon Chamberlain, Daniel Jettka, Daniela Goecke, Udo Kruschwitz 10.1 Introduction How Data Is Added to the Anaphoric Bank Filtering Criteria Data That Has Already Been Annotated Using the Expert Annotation Tool Using a Non-expert Annotation Game Architecture for the Anaphoric Bank SGF-The XML Architecture Part Database Format Conclusion 192 References Integrated Linguistic Annotation Models and Their Application in the Domain of Antecedent Detection 197 Andreas Witt, Maik Stührenberg, Daniela Goecke, Dieter Metzing 11.1 Introduction Anaphora Resolution Logical Document Structure What Is Logical Document Structure? Application of Logical Document Structure for Linguistic Tasks XML-Annotation of Logical Document Structure Integration of Resources Representation Formats Sekimo Generic Format and XStandoff Antecedent Candidate List Results of a Corpus Study Conclusion 214 References 215 Part V: Document Structure Learning 12 Machine Learning for Document Structure Recognition 221 Gerhard Paaß, luliu Konya 12.1 Introduction Document Analysis for Large-Scale Processing Geometric Layout Analysis Logical Layout Analysis Minimum Spanning Tree-Based Logical Layout Analysis Evaluation 231

6 X Contents 12.3 Estimating Document Structure by Conditional Random Fields Basic Model Application of Linear-Chain CRFs to Structure Information Extraction Discriminative Parsing Models Graph-Structured Model Conclusion 244 References Corpus-Based Structure Mapping of XML Document Corpora: A Reinforcement Learning Based Model 249 Francis Maes, Ludovic Denoyer, Patrick Gallinari 13.1 Introduction and Motivation Related Work Structure Mapping Task Task Description Notations Complexity of Inferring and Learning Mappings Reinforcement Learning Based Model Informal Description Deterministic Markov Decision Process Modeling the Policy Evaluating and Learning the Policy Experiments Datasets Evaluation Measures Comparison to Baseline Models Results Conclusion 265 References Learning Methods for Graph Models of Document Structure 267 Peter Geibel, Alexander Mehler, Kai-Uwe Kiihnberger HA Introduction Directed Generalized Trees Quantitative Structure Analysis by Example of Websites Kernel Methods The Soft Tree Kernel for GTs The Soft GT Kernel The INDIGO Context and Label Sequence Kernels Experiments The Corpus Quantitative Structure Analysis Kernel Methods 291

7 Contents XI 14.6 Conclusion 293 References Integrating Content and Structure Learning: A Model of Hypertext Zoning and Sounding 299 Alexander Mehler, Ulli Waltinger 15.1 Introduction Webgenre Learning in a Two-Level Perspective Thematic-Generic Tracking, Zoning and Sounding A Two-Level Model of Logical Web Document Structures Hypertext Stage Classifier Hypertext Stage Grammar and Type Classifier Experiments Thematic-Generic Sounding in the Web Bounds of Thematic Sounding in Wikipedia Dominator, Successor and Trigger Sets Statistical Moments of Trigger and Dominator Sets Conclusion 325 References 326 Part VI: Interfacing Textual Data, Ontological Resources and Document Parsing 16 Learning Semantic Relations from Text 333 Gerhard Hey er 16.1 Introduction How Is It Possible to Automatically Process Meaning! Some Filters for Semantic Relations An Architecture for Learning Semantic Relations 342 References Modelling and Processing Wordnets in OWL 347 Harald Lungen, Michael Beißwenger, Bianca Selzam, Angelika Storrer 17.1 Research Context and Motivation Resources GermaNet TermNet GermaTermNet Modelling Wordnet-Like Resources in OWL Basic Options Related Work OWL Models for GermaNet, TermNet, and GermaTermNet Processing WordNet-Like Resources in OWL 363

8 XII Contents Processing the OWL Models of TermNet Processing the OWL Full Version of GermaTermNet Conclusion 372 References Exploring Resources for Lexical Chaining: A Comparison of Automated Semantic Relatedness Measures and Human Judgments 377 Irene Cramer, Tonio Wandmacher, Ulli Waltinger 18.1 Motivation Lexical Chaining Related Work Budanitsky and Hirst Boyd-Graber et al Semantic Relatedness Measures Net-Based Measures Distributional Measures Wikipedia-Based Measures Evaluation Method Results Meta-level Evaluation Conclusions and Future Work 393 References 394 Author Index 397