File Memory for Extended Storage Disk Caches
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1 File Memory for Disk Caches A Master s Thesis Seminar John C. Koob January 16, 2004 John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 1/25
2 Disk Cache File Memory ESDC Design Experimental Results Future Work John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 2/25
3 Disk Cache Computer memory hierarchy: Fast but expensive caches Slow but high capacity storage John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 3/25
4 Disk Cache Computer memory hierarchy: Fast but expensive caches Slow but high capacity storage Memory hierarchy design criteria Capacity Cost Performance John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 3/25
5 Disk Cache Computer memory hierarchy: Fast but expensive caches Slow but high capacity storage Memory hierarchy design criteria Capacity Cost Performance Emerging memory technology Target high densities at low cost Potential for new hierarchy stages John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 3/25
6 Access time gap problem Disk Cache Access Time 10 ms 1 ms 100 us 10 us 1 us 100 ns 10 ns 1 ns 0 ns CPU Registers CPU Caches Main Memory Magnetic Disk Data from 2001; courtesy of Hennessy & Patterson, 3rd Edition John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 4/25
7 Access time gap problem 10 ms Disk Cache Access Time 1 ms 100 us 10 us 1 us 100 ns 10 ns Four orders of magnitude 1 ns 0 ns CPU Registers CPU Caches Main Memory Magnetic Disk Data from 2001; courtesy of Hennessy & Patterson, 3rd Edition John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 4/25
8 Disk Cache How to fill the hierarchy gap? CPU Registers CPU Caches Main Memory Disk Tertiary Storage John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 5/25
9 Disk Cache How to fill the hierarchy gap? Use extended storage A stage between main memory and disk Less expensive per bit than main memory Faster than disk Slower than main memory Not necessarily semiconductor media CPU Registers CPU Caches Main Memory Extended Storage Disk Tertiary Storage John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 5/25
10 Extended storage first appeared in expensive legacy systems John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 6/25
11 Extended storage first appeared in expensive legacy systems IBM 3090 mainframe Main memory: 0.5 GB at 350 ns for each doubleword Extended storage: 4 GB with 75- Terminology: Expanded Storage s page transfer time Image courtesy of John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 6/25
12 Extended storage first appeared in expensive legacy systems IBM 3090 mainframe Main memory: 0.5 GB at 350 ns for each doubleword Extended storage: 4 GB with 75- Terminology: Expanded Storage s page transfer time Main Memory ES Disk Image courtesy of John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 6/25
13 Extended storage first appeared in expensive legacy systems Cray Y-MP supercomputer Main memory: 1 GB of 15-ns bipolar SRAM Extended storage: 4 GB of 50-ns DRAM Terminology: solid-state disk (SSD) Cray Y-MP Image courtesy of the Charles Babbage Institute John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 7/25
14 Extended storage first appeared in expensive legacy systems Cray Y-MP supercomputer Main memory: 1 GB of 15-ns bipolar SRAM Extended storage: 4 GB of 50-ns DRAM Terminology: solid-state disk (SSD) Cray Y-MP Main Memory Main Memory ES ES Image courtesy of the Charles Babbage Institute Disk Disk John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 7/25
15 Reintroduce extended storage into modern Disk Cache systems by using file memory File memory is more economical per bit than DRAM DRAM design constraints increase costs per bit 100% of nominal capacity must be functional Contiguous address space Consistently good access time File memory relaxes such design constraints Improve yield by avoiding faulty blocks Address space is not contiguous Improve density at expense of performance (e.g. multilevel DRAM) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 8/25
16 Yield models Disk Cache Single cell yields assume a Poisson distribution of faults Negative binomial distribution handles fault clustering Methods for improving file memory yield Redundancy Error-correcting codes (ECC) Bad block marking of partially-good product Combination of the above techniques John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 9/25
17 Operating system can assist with fault tolerance Disk Cache Adaptation of the OS memory allocator Reserve faulty pages in file memory at startup Advantages: No fault lists checked during memory accesses Virtually no performance overhead Variable block sizes possible Nice fit for partially-good DRAMs Disadvantages: Challenge to mark blocks smaller than a page Distribution of memory module defect maps John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 10/25
18 Physical Memory Array of Page Descriptors Free Area Array Bitmaps Array Disk Cache Buddy Blocks Free Used A 4 KB Page Frame Number of Page Frames in Block John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 11/25
19 Disk Cache Buddy Blocks Bad Blocks Physical Memory Free Array of Page Descriptors Free Area Array Bitmaps Array Bit Marking Bad Block 2 9 Used A 4 KB Page Frame Number of Page Frames in Block John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 11/25
20 Disk Cache To evaluate file memory as extended storage: Disk Cache Require an empirical evaluation platform Modify Linux operating system ESDC Design Summary High memory support Memory hierarchy integration Page containment Configurable performance Caching properties Demand paging support Processor Caches Main Memory Virtual Disk Cache Metrics acquisition Implementation robustness Disk and Swap John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 12/25
21 Disk Cache To evaluate file memory as extended storage: Disk Cache Require an empirical evaluation platform Modify Linux operating system ESDC Design Summary High memory support Memory hierarchy integration Page containment Configurable performance Caching properties Demand paging support Processor Caches Main Memory ESDC Metrics acquisition Implementation robustness Disk and Swap John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 12/25
22 Disk Cache Virtual Address Space Processor executes in user mode or kernel mode 0 GB 3 GB 4 GB Kernel User Address Space Address Space John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 13/25
23 Disk Cache Virtual Address Space Processor executes in user mode or kernel mode 0 GB 3 GB 4 GB Kernel User Address Space Address Space Physical memory zones Required due to 32-bit addressing limitations High memory can be emulated in ESDC 0 MB 896 MB RAM size Low Memory High Memory John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 13/25
24 USER ADDRESS SPACE KERNEL ADDRESS SPACE Disk Cache LOW MEMORY HIGH MEMORY Pages Backed to Disk Page Copy Page and Swap Caches Page Copy Bounce Buffers DMA to Block Device John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 14/25
25 USER ADDRESS SPACE KERNEL ADDRESS SPACE Disk Cache LOW MEMORY HIGH MEMORY Access Restricted Pages Backed to Disk Page Copy ESDC Page Copy Delay Elements Bounce Buffers DMA to Block Device John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 14/25
26 Configurable file memory properties Disk Cache Adjustable size and access time Model different file memory access times Use multiple page copies Problem: Repeated page copies would be cached Solution: Disable caches for the high memory zone Accurate normalized file memory access time ratios Implementation Use Intel s memory type range registers (MTRRs) New algorithm needed for arbitrary ESDC sizes John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 15/25
27 Disk Cache s 0 b Base address Unaligned ESDC memory area John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 16/25
28 Disk Cache 0 b m2 Aligned base address n 2 s (m+1)2 Largest aligned MTRR range n n John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 16/25
29 Disk Cache 0 s b Anchor address Largest aligned MTRR range in left sublock John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 16/25
30 Disk Cache 0 b s John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 16/25
31 Disk Cache 0 b s John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 16/25
32 Disk Cache 0 b s John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 16/25
33 Disk Cache 0 b s John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 16/25
34 Experimental Platform Disk Cache Intel 2.4 GHz Pentium 4 processor 2 GB DDR SDRAM at 266 MHz 18-GB Seagate SCSI hard disk Custom experimental automation Perl scripts Experimental Suite PostMark - small file synthetic benchmark Bonnie - file system synthetic benchmark MUMmer - genome alignment application Kernel compilation - Linux kernel build John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 17/25
35 DRAM as ESDC: uncached, access time ratio of 1 Disk Cache DataWriteRate (KB/s) Main Memory (MB) ESDC (MB) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 18/25
36 File memory as ESDC: uncached, access time ratio of 3 Disk Cache DataWriteRate (KB/s) Main Memory (MB) ESDC (MB) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 18/25
37 Main memory fixed at 112 MB Disk Cache DataWriteRate (KB/s) DRAM (access time ratio 1) File Memory (access time ratio 3) ESDC (MB) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 19/25
38 35% performance gain if 80 MB of slower file memory is available at the same price as 40 MB of DRAM DRAM (access time ratio 1) File Memory (access time ratio 3) Disk Cache DataWriteRate (KB/s) % ESDC (MB) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 19/25
39 ESDC using 28% more file memory than DRAM will achieve equivalent performance (averaged over working set: 37%) DRAM (access time ratio 1) File Memory (access time ratio 3) Disk Cache DataWriteRate (KB/s) % ESDC (MB) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 19/25
40 Access time penalty and performance (160 MB main memory) Disk Cache DataWriteRate (KB/s) Access Time Penalty (%) ESDC (MB) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 19/25
41 DRAM as ESDC: uncached, access time ratio of 1 Disk Cache RndSeeks (/s) Main Memory (MB) ESDC (MB) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 20/25
42 Equivalent performance results averaged over working set range: 31% more file memory than DRAM required Disk Cache RndSeeks (/s) DRAM (access time ratio 1) FM (access time ratio 3) ESDC (MB) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 20/25
43 MUMmer evaluates ESDC for demand paging Disk Cache Alignment of two human chromosomes Most pages backed by swap on disk With sufficient capacity, ESDC reduces thrashing No performance benefit by caching swapped pages New hierarchy stage recommended for demand paging Impact of disabled processor caches Must enable caches for MUMmer and kernel compiles Some file-backed pages are excessively referenced e.g. header files and numerous compilation processes John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 21/25
44 ESDC miss rate for Linux kernel compilation Disk Cache ES miss rate (%) time (s) John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 22/25
45 Extended storage in the modern hierarchy Disk Cache Filled part of the access time gap Proposed suitable bad block marking method Created a market for available partially-good memories Replaced virtual disk cache with ESDC Minimized overall design impact on system Results of ESDC evaluation Assumed file memory is three times slower than DRAM Average of 31 37% more file memory than DRAM required for equivalent performance for two benchmarks Excellent for small file I/O (e.g. web servers) Degraded performance for I/O on large files File memory is effective as extended storage John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 23/25
46 Improve file memory fault tolerance efficiency Disk Cache Mark bad blocks smaller than a page Consider hardware and software approaches Evaluate effectiveness of alternatives Address negative performance impacts of ESDC Multiple disk cache stages in hierarchy Analytical approach for disk cache sizing Use a portion of ESDC as a paging device Support 64-bit architectures John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 24/25
47 Disk Cache Acknowledgements I wish to thank everyone who offered help and valuable suggestions during my research work, especially: Amir Alimohammad Tyler Brandon Kris Breen Bruce Cockburn Steve Dillen Duncan Elliott Christian Giasson Craig Joly Daniel Leder Sue Ann Ung John C. Koob, January 16, 2004 File Memory for Disk Caches p. 25/25
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