Introduction to Oracle9i: SQL

Transcription

1 Introduction to Oracle9i: SQL Student Guide Volume GC11 Production 1.1 October 2001 D33990

2 Authors Nancy Greenberg Priya Nathan Technical Contributors and Reviewers Josephine Turner Martin Alvarez Anna Atkinson Don Bates Marco Berbeek Andrew Brannigan Laszlo Czinkoczki Michael Gerlach Sharon Gray Rosita Hanoman Mozhe Jalali Sarah Jones Charbel Khouri Christopher Lawless Diana Lorentz Nina Minchen Cuong Nguyen Daphne Nougier Patrick Odell Laura Pezzini Stacey Procter Maribel Renau Bryan Roberts Helen Robertson Sunshine Salmon Casa Sharif Bernard Soleillant Craig Spoonemore Ruediger Steffan Karla Villasenor Andree Wheeley Lachlan Williams Copyright Oracle Corporation, 2000, All rights reserved. This documentation contains proprietary information of Oracle Corporation. It is provided under a license agreement containing restrictions on use and disclosure and is also protected by copyright law. Reverse engineering of the software is prohibited. If this documentation is delivered to a U.S. Government Agency of the Department of Defense, then it is delivered with Restricted Rights and the following legend is applicable: Restricted Rights Legend Use, duplication or disclosure by the Government is subject to restrictions for commercial computer software and shall be deemed to be Restricted Rights software under Federal law, as set forth in subparagraph (c)(1)(ii) of DFARS , Rights in Technical Data and Computer Software (October 1988). This material or any portion of it may not be copied in any form or by any means without the express prior written permission of Oracle Corporation. Any other copying is a violation of copyright law and may result in civil and/or criminal penalties. If this documentation is delivered to a U.S. Government Agency not within the Department of Defense, then it is delivered with Restricted Rights, as defined in FAR , Rights in Data-General, including Alternate III (June 1987). The information in this document is subject to change without notice. If you find any problems in the documentation, please report them in writing to Education Products, Oracle Corporation, 500 Oracle Parkway, Box SB-6, Redwood Shores, CA Oracle Corporation does not warrant that this document is error-free. Oracle and all references to Oracle products are trademarks or registered trademarks of Oracle Corporation. All other products or company names are used for identification purposes only, and may be trademarks of their respective owners. Publisher Nita Brozowski

3 Contents Preface Curriculum Map Introduction Objectives I-2 Oracle9i I-3 Oracle9i Application Server I-5 Oracle9i Database I-6 Relational and Object Relational Database Management System I-7 Oracle Internet Platform I-8 System Development Life Cycle I-9 Data Storage on Different Media I-11 Relational Database Concept I-12 Definition of a Relational Database I-13 Data Models I-14 Entity Relationship Model I-15 Entity Relationship Modeling Conventions I-16 Relating Multiple Tables I-18 Relational Database Terminology I-19 Relational Database Properties I-20 Communicating with a RDBMS Using SQL I-21 Relational Database Management System I-22 SQL Statements I-23 Tables Used in the Course I-24 1 Writing Basic SQL SELECT Statements Objectives 1-2 Capabilities of SQL SELECT Statements 1-3 Basic SELECT Statement 1-4 Selecting All Columns 1-5 Selecting Specific Columns 1-6 Writing SQL Statements 1-7 Column Heading Defaults 1-8 Arithmetic Expressions 1-9 Using Arithmetic Operators 1-10 Operator Precedence 1-11 Using Parentheses 1-13 Defining a Null Value 1-14 Null Values in Arithmetic Expressions 1-15 Defining a Column Alias 1-16 Using Column Aliases 1-17 Concatenation Operator 1-18 Using the Concatenation Operator 1-19 Literal Character Strings 1-20 Using Literal Character Strings 1-21 Duplicate Rows 1-22 Eliminating Duplicate Rows 1-23 iii

4 SQL and isql*plus Interaction 1-24 SQL Statements Versus isql*plus Commands 1-25 Overview of isql*plus 1-26 Logging In to isql*plus 1-27 The isql*plus Environment 1-28 Displaying Table Structure 1-29 Interacting with Script Files 1-31 Summary 1-34 Practice Overview Restricting and Sorting Data Objectives 2-2 Limiting Rows Using a Selection 2-3 Limiting the Rows Selected 2-4 Using the WHERE Clause 2-5 Character Strings and Dates 2-6 Comparison Conditions 2-7 Using Comparison Conditions 2-8 Other Comparison Conditions 2-9 Using the BETWEEN Condition 2-10 Using the IN Condition 2-11 Using the LIKE Condition 2-12 Using the NULL Conditions 2-14 Logical Conditions 2-15 Using the AND Operator 2-16 Using the OR Operator 2-17 Using the NOT Operator 2-18 Rules of Precedence 2-19 ORDER BY Clause 2-22 Sorting in Descending Order 2-23 Sorting by Column Alias 2-24 Sorting by Multiple Columns 2-25 Summary 2-26 Practice 2 Overview Single-Row Functions Objectives 3-2 SQL Functions 3-3 Two Types of SQL Functions 3-4 Single-Row Functions 3-5 Single-Row Functions 3-6 Character Functions 3-7 Character Functions 3-8 Case Manipulation Functions 3-9 Using Case Manipulation Functions 3-10 iv

5 Character-Manipulation Functions 3-11 Using the Character-Manipulation Functions 3-12 Number Functions 3-13 Using the ROUND Function 3-14 Using the TRUNC Function 3-15 Using the MOD Function 3-16 Working with Dates 3-17 Arithmetic with Dates 3-19 Using Arithmetic Operators with Dates 3-20 Date Functions 3-21 Using Date Functions 3-22 Practice 3, Part One: Overview 3-24 Conversion Functions 3-25 Implicit Data Type Conversion 3-26 Explicit Data Type Conversion 3-28 Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates 3-31 Elements of the Date Format Model 3-32 Using the TO_CHAR Function with Dates 3-36 Using the TO_CHAR Function with Numbers 3-37 Using the TO_NUMBER and TO_DATE Functions 3-39 RR Date Format 3-40 Example of RR Date Format 3-41 Nesting Functions 3-42 General Functions 3-44 NVL Function 3-45 Using the NVL Function 3-46 Using the NVL2 Function 3-47 Using the NULLIF Function 3-48 Using the COALESCE Function 3-49 Conditional Expressions 3-51 The CASE Expression 3-52 Using the CASE Expression 3-53 The DECODE Function 3-54 Using the DECODE Function 3-55 Summary 3-57 Practice 3, Part Two: Overview Displaying Data from Multiple Tables Objectives 4-2 Obtaining Data from Multiple Tables 4-3 Cartesian Products 4-4 Generating a Cartesian Product 4-5 Types of Joins 4-6 Joining Tables Using Oracle Syntax 4-7 What is an Equijoin? 4-8 v

6 Retrieving Records with Equijoins 4-9 Additional Search Conditions Using the AND Operator 4-10 Qualifying Ambiguous Column Names 4-11 Using Table Aliases 4-12 Joining More than Two Tables 4-13 Non-Equijoins 4-14 Retrieving Records with Non-Equijoins 4-15 Outer Joins 4-16 Outer Joins Syntax 4-17 Using Outer Joins 4-18 Self Joins 4-19 Joining a Table to Itself 4-20 Practice 4, Part One: Overview 4-21 Joining Tables Using SQL: 1999 Syntax 4-22 Creating Cross Joins 4-23 Creating Natural Joins 4-24 Retrieving Records with Natural Joins 4-25 Creating Joins with the USING Clause 4-26 Retrieving Records with the USING Clause 4-27 Creating Joins with the ON Clause 4-28 Retrieving Records with the ON Clause 4-29 Creating Three-Way Joins with the ON Clause 4-30 INNER Versus OUTER Joins 4-31 LEFT OUTER JOIN 4-32 RIGHT OUTER JOIN 4-33 FULL OUTER JOIN 4-34 Additional Conditions 4-35 Summary 4-36 Practice 4, Part Two: Overview Aggregating Data Using Group Functions Objectives 5-2 What Are Group Functions? 5-3 Types of Group Functions 5-4 Group Functions Syntax 5-5 Using the AVG and SUM Functions 5-6 Using the MIN and MAX Functions 5-7 Using the COUNT Function 5-8 Using the DISTINCT Keyword 5-10 Group Functions and Null Values 5-11 Using the NVL Function with Group Functions 5-12 Creating Groups of Data 5-13 Creating Groups of Data: The GROUP BY Clause Syntax 5-14 Using the GROUP BY Clause 5-15 Grouping by More Than One Column 5-17 vi

7 Using the GROUP BY Clause on Multiple Columns 5-18 Illegal Queries Using Group Functions 5-19 Excluding Group Results 5-21 Excluding Group Results: The HAVING Clause 5-22 Using the HAVING Clause 5-23 Nesting Group Functions 5-25 Summary 5-26 Practice 5 Overview Subqueries Objectives 6-2 Using a Subquery to Solve a Problem 6-3 Subquery Syntax 6-4 Using a Subquery 6-5 Guidelines for Using Subqueries 6-6 Types of Subqueries 6-7 Single-Row Subqueries 6-8 Executing Single-Row Subqueries 6-9 Using Group Functions in a Subquery 6-10 The HAVING Clause with Subqueries 6-11 What is Wrong with this Statement? 6-12 Will this Statement Return Rows? 6-13 Multiple-Row Subqueries 6-14 Using the ANY Operator in Multiple-Row Subqueries 6-15 Using the ALL Operator in Multiple-Row Subqueries 6-16 Null Values in a Subquery 6-17 Summary 6-18 Practice 6 Overview Producing Readable Output with isql*plus Objectives 7-2 Substitution Variables 7-3 Using the & Substitution Variable 7-5 Character and Date Values with Substitution Variables 7-7 Specifying Column Names, Expressions, and Text 7-8 Defining Substitution Variables 7-10 DEFINE and UNDEFINE Commands 7-11 Using the DEFINE Command with & Substitution Variable 7-12 Using the && Substitution Variable 7-13 Using the VERIFY Command 7-14 Customizing the isql*plus Environment 7-15 SET Command Variables 7-16 isql*plus Format Commands 7-17 The COLUMN Command 7-18 Using the COLUMN Command 7-19 vii

8 COLUMN Format Models 7-20 Using the BREAK Command 7-21 Using the TTITLE and BTITLE Commands 7-22 Creating a Script File to Run a Report 7-24 Sample Report 7-26 Summary 7-28 Practice 7 Overview Manipulating Data Objectives 8-2 Data Manipulation Language 8-3 Adding a New Row to a Table 8-4 The INSERT Statement Syntax 8-5 Inserting New Rows 8-6 Inserting Rows with Null Values 8-7 Inserting Special Values 8-8 Inserting Specific Date Values 8-9 Creating a Script 8-10 Copying Rows from Another Table 8-11 Changing Data in a Table 8-12 The UPDATE Statement Syntax 8-13 Updating Rows in a Table 8-14 Updating Two Columns with a Subquery 8-15 Updating Rows Based on Another Table 8-16 Updating Rows: Integrity Constraint Error 8-17 Removing a Row from a Table 8-18 The DELETE Statement 8-19 Deleting Rows from a Table 8-20 Deleting Rows Based on Another Table 8-21 Deleting Rows: Integrity Constraint Error 8-22 Using a Subquery in an INSERT Statement 8-23 Using the WITH CHECK OPTION Keyword on DML Statements 8-25 Overview of the Explicit Default Feature 8-26 Using Explicit Default Values 8-27 The MERGE Statement 8-28 The MERGE Statement Syntax 8-29 Merging Rows 8-30 Database Transactions 8-32 Advantages of COMMIT and ROLLBACK Statements 8-34 Controlling Transactions 8-35 Rolling Back Changes to a Marker 8-36 Implicit Transaction Processing 8-37 State of the Data Before COMMIT or ROLLBACK 8-38 State of the Data after COMMIT 8-39 Committing Data 8-40 viii

9 State of the Data After ROLLBACK 8-41 Statement-Level Rollback 8-42 Read Consistency 8-43 Implementation of Read Consistency 8-44 Locking 8-45 Implicit Locking 8-46 Summary 8-47 Practice 8 Overview 8-48 Read Consistency Example Creating and Managing Tables Objectives 9-2 Database Objects 9-3 Naming Rules 9-4 The CREATE TABLE Statement 9-5 Referencing Another User s Tables 9-6 The DEFAULT Option 9-7 Creating Tables 9-8 Tables in the Oracle Database 9-9 Querying the Data Dictionary 9-10 Data Types 9-11 DateTime Data Types 9-13 TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE Data Type 9-15 TIMESTAMP WITH LOCAL TIME Data Type 9-16 INTERVAL YEAR TO MONTH Data Type 9-17 INTERVAL DAY TO SECOND Data Type 9-18 Creating a Table by Using a Subquery Syntax 9-20 Creating a Table by Using a Subquery 9-21 The ALTER TABLE Statement 9-22 Adding a Column 9-24 Modifying a Column 9-26 Dropping a Column 9-27 The SET UNUSED Option 9-28 Dropping a Table 9-29 Changing the Name of an Object 9-30 Truncating a Table 9-31 Adding Comments to a Table 9-32 Summary 9-33 Practice 9 Overview 9-34 ix

10 10 Including Constraints Objectives 10-2 What are Constraints? 10-3 Constraint Guidelines 10-4 Defining Constraints 10-5 The NOT NULL Constraint 10-7 The UNIQUE Constraint 10-9 The PRIMARY KEY Constraint The FOREIGN KEY Constraint FOREIGN KEY Constraint Keywords The CHECK Constraint Adding a Constraint Syntax Adding a Constraint Dropping a Constraint Disabling Constraints Enabling Constraints Cascading Constraints Viewing Constraints Viewing the Columns Associated with Constraints Summary Practice 10 Overview Creating Views Objectives 11-2 Database Objects 11-3 What is a View? 11-4 Why use Views? 11-5 Simple Views and Complex Views 11-6 Creating a View 11-7 Retrieving Data from a View Querying a View Modifying a View Creating a Complex View Rules for Performing DML Operations on a View Using the WITH CHECK OPTION Clause Denying DML Operations Removing a View Inline Views Top-N Analysis Performing Top-N Analysis Example of Top-N Analysis Summary Practice 11 Overview x

11 12 Other Database Objects Objectives 12-2 Database Objects 12-3 What is a Sequence? 12-4 The CREATE SEQUENCE Statement Syntax 12-5 Creating a Sequence 12-6 Confirming Sequences 12-7 NEXTVAL and CURRVAL Pseudocolumns 12-8 Using a Sequence Modifying a Sequence Guidelines for Modifying a Sequence Removing a Sequence What is an Index? How Are Indexes Created? Creating an Index When to Create an Index When Not to Create an Index Confirming Indexes Function-Based Indexes Removing an Index Synonyms Creating and Removing Synonyms Summary Practice 12 Overview Controlling User Access Objectives 13-2 Controlling User Access 13-3 Privileges 13-4 System Privileges 13-5 Creating Users 13-6 User System Privileges 13-7 Granting System Privileges 13-8 What is a Role? 13-9 Creating and Granting Privileges to a Role Changing Your Password Object Privileges Granting Object Privileges Using the WITH GRANT OPTION and PUBLIC Keywords Confirming Privileges Granted How to Revoke Object Privileges Revoking Object Privileges Database Links Summary Practice 13 Overview xi

12 14 SQL Workshop Workshop Overview Using SET Operators Objectives 15-2 The SET Operators 15-3 Tables Used in This Lesson 15-4 The UNION Operator 15-7 Using the UNION Operator 15-8 The UNION ALL Operator Using the UNION ALL Operator The INTERSECT Operator Using the INTERSECT Operator The MINUS Operator SET Operator Guidelines The Oracle Server and SET Operators Matching the SELECT Statements Controlling the Order of Rows Summary Practice 15 Overview Oracle9i Datetime Functions Objectives 16-2 TIME ZONES 16-3 Oracle9i Datetime Support 16-4 TZ_OFFSET 16-6 CURRENT_DATE 16-8 CURRENT_TIMESTAMP 16-9 LOCALTIMESTAMP DBTIMEZONE and SESSIONTIMEZONE EXTRACT TIMESTAMP Conversion Using FROM_TZ STRING To TIMESTAMP Conversion Using TO_TIMESTAMP and TO_TIMESTAMP_TZ Time Interval Conversion with TO_YMINTERVAL Summary Practice 16 Overview Enhancements to the GROUP BY Clause Objectives 17-2 Review of Group Functions 17-3 Review of the GROUP BY Clause 17-4 Review of the HAVING Clause 17-5 GROUP BY with ROLLUP and CUBE Operators 17-6 ROLLUP Operator 17-7 ROLLUP Operator Example 17-8 xii

13 CUBE Operator 17-9 CUBE Operator: Example GROUPING Function GROUPING Function: Example GROUPING SETS GROUPING SETS: Example Composite Columns Composite Columns: Example Concatenated Groupings Concatenated Groupings Example Summary Practice 17 Overview Advanced Subqueries Objectives 18-2 What Is a Subquery? 18-3 Subqueries 18-4 Using a Subquery 18-5 Multiple-Column Subqueries 18-6 Column Comparisons 18-7 Pairwise Comparison Subquery 18-8 Nonpairwise Comparison Subquery 18-9 Using a Subquery in the FROM Clause Scalar Subquery Expressions Scalar Subqueries: Examples Correlated Subqueries Using Correlated Subqueries Using the EXISTS Operator Using the NOT EXISTS Operator Correlated UPDATE Correlated DELETE The WITH Clause WITH Clause: Example Summary Practice 18 Overview Hierarchical Retrieval Objectives 19-2 Sample Data from the EMPLOYEES Table 19-3 Natural Tree Structure 19-4 Hierarchical Queries 19-5 Walking the Tree 19-6 Walking the Tree: From the Bottom Up 19-8 Walking the Tree: From the Top Down 19-9 Ranking Rows with the LEVEL Pseudocolumn xiii

14 Formatting Hierarchical Reports Using LEVEL and LPAD Pruning Branches Summary Practice 19 Overview Oracle9i Extensions to DML and DDL Statements Objectives 20-2 Review of the INSERT Statement 20-3 Review of the UPDATE Statement 20-4 Overview of Multitable INSERT Statements 20-5 Overview of Multitable INSERT Statements 20-6 Types of Multitable INSERT Statements 20-7 Multitable INSERT Statements 20-8 Unconditional INSERT ALL Conditional INSERT ALL Conditional FIRST INSERT Pivoting INSERT External Tables Creating an External Table Example of Creating an External Table Querying External Tables CREATE INDEX with CREATE TABLE Statement Summary Practice 20 Overview A B C D E Practice solutions Table Descriptions and Data Using SQL* Plus Writing Advanced Scripts Oracle Architectural Components Index Additional Practices Additional Practice Solutions Additional Practices Table and Descriptions xiv