Chapter Two Introduction to Networking

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1 Overview Bandwidth is a crucial component in networking. Bandwidth decisions are among the most important when a network is designed. This module discusses the importance of bandwidth, explains how it is calculated, and how it is measured. Functions of networking are described using layered models. This module covers the two most important models, which are the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model and the Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model. The module also presents the differences and similarities between the two models. In addition, this module presents a brief history of networking. It also describes network devices, as well as cabling, physical, and logical layouts. This module also defines and compares LANs, MANs, WANs, SANs, and VPNs. Students completing this module should be able to: Explain the importance of bandwidth in networking. Use an analogy from their experience to explain bandwidth. Identify bps, kbps, Mbps, and Gbps as units of bandwidth. Explain the difference between bandwidth and throughput. Calculate data transfer rates. Explain why layered models are used to describe data communication. Explain the development of the Open System Interconnection model (OSI). List the advantages of a layered approach. Identify each of the seven layers of the OSI model. Identify the four layers of the TCP/IP model. Describe the similarities and differences between the two models. Briefly outline the history of networking. Identify devices used in networking. Understand the role of protocols in networking. Define LAN, WAN, MAN, and SAN. Explain VPNs and their advantages. Describe the differences between intranets and extranets. 2.1 Networking Terminology Data networks Data networks developed as a result of business applications that were written for microcomputers. At that time microcomputers were not connected as mainframe computer terminals were, so there was no efficient way of sharing data among multiple microcomputers. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 1

2 It became apparent that sharing data through the use of floppy disks was not an efficient or cost-effective manner in which to operate businesses. Sneakernet created multiple copies of the data. Each time a file was modified it would have to be shared again with all other people who needed that file. If two people modified the file and then tried to share it, one of the sets of changes would be lost. Businesses needed a solution that would successfully address the following three problems: How to avoid duplication of equipment and resources How to communicate efficiently How to set up and manage a network Businesses realized that networking technology could increase productivity while saving money. Networks were added and expanded almost as rapidly as new network technologies and products were introduced. In the early 1980s networking saw a tremendous expansion, even though the early development of networking was disorganized. In the mid-1980s, the network technologies that had emerged had been created with a variety of different hardware and software implementations. Each company that created network hardware and software used its own company standards. These individual standards were developed because of competition with other companies. Consequently, many of the new network technologies were incompatible with each other. It became increasingly difficult for networks that used different specifications to communicate with each other. This often required the old network equipment to be removed to implement the new equipment. One early solution was the creation of local-area network (LAN) standards. Because LAN standards provided an open set of guidelines for creating network hardware and software, the equipment from different companies could then become compatible. This allowed for stability in LAN implementation. In a LAN system, each department of the company is a kind of electronic island. As the use of computers in businesses grew, it soon became obvious that even LANs were not sufficient. 2 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

3 What was needed was a way for information to move efficiently and quickly, not only within a company, but also from one business to another. The solution was the creation of metropolitan-area networks (MANs) and wide-area networks (WANs). Because WANs could connect user networks over large geographic areas, it was possible for businesses to communicate with each other across great distances. Figure summarizes the relative sizes of LANs and WANs. 2.1 Networking Terminology Network history The history of computer networking is complex. It has involved many people from all over the world over the past 35 years. Presented here is a simplified view of how the Internet evolved. The processes of invention and commercialization are far more complicated, but it is helpful to look at the fundamental development. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 3

4 In the 1940s computers were large electromechanical devices that were prone to failure. In 1947 the invention of a semiconductor transistor opened up many possibilities for making smaller, more reliable computers. In the 1950s mainframe computers, which were run by punched card programs, began to be used by large institutions. In the late 1950s the integrated circuit that combined several, then many, and now millions, of transistors on one small piece of semiconductor was invented. Through the 1960s mainframes with terminals were commonplace, and integrated circuits were widely used. In the late 1960s and 1970s, smaller computers, called minicomputers came into existence. However, these minicomputers were still very large by modern standards. In 1977 the Apple Computer Company introduced the microcomputer, also known as the personal computer. In 1981 IBM introduced its first personal computer. The userfriendly Mac, the open-architecture IBM PC, and the further micro-miniaturization of integrated circuits led to widespread use of personal computers in homes and businesses. In the mid- 1980s users with stand-alone computers started to share files using modems to connect to other computers. This was referred to as point-to-point, or dial-up communication. This concept was expanded by the use of computers that were the central point of communication in a dial-up connection. These computers were called bulletin boards. Users would connect to the bulletin boards, leave and pick up messages, as well as upload and download files. The drawback to this type of system was that there was very little direct communication and then only with those who knew about the bulletin board. Another limitation was that the bulletin board computer required one modem per connection. If five people connected simultaneously it would require five modems connected to five separate phone lines. As the number of people who wanted to use the system grew, the system was not able to handle the demand. For example, imagine if 500 people wanted to connect at the same time. Starting in the 1960s and continuing through the 70s, 80s, and 90s, the Department of Defense (DoD) developed large, reliable, wide-area networks (WANs) for military and scientific reasons. This technology was different from the point-to-point communication used in bulletin boards. It allowed multiple computers to be connected together using many different paths. The network itself would determine how to move data from one computer to another. Instead of only being able to communicate with one other computer at a time, many computers could be reached using the same connection. The DoDs WAN eventually became the Internet. 4 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

5 2.1 Networking Terminology Networking devices Equipment that connects directly to a network segment is referred to as a device. These devices are broken up into two classifications. The first classification is end-user devices. End-user devices include computers, printers, scanners, and other devices that provide services directly to the user. The second classification is network devices. Network devices include all the devices that connect the end-user devices together to allow them to communicate. End-user devices that provide users with a connection to the network are also referred to as hosts. These devices allow users to share, create, and obtain information. The host devices can exist without a network, but without the network the host capabilities are greatly reduced. Host devices are physically connected to the network media using a network interface card (NIC). They use this connection to perform the tasks of sending s, printing reports, scanning pictures, or accessing databases. A NIC is a printed circuit board that fits into the expansion slot of a bus on a computer motherboard, or it can be a peripheral device. It is also called a network adapter. Laptop or notebook computer NICs are usually the size of a PCMCIA card. Each individual NIC carries a unique code, called a Media Access Control (MAC) address. This address is used to control data communication for the host on the network. More about the MAC address will be covered later. As the name implies, the NIC controls host access to the medium. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 5

6 There are no standardized symbols for end-user devices in the networking industry. They appear similar to the real devices to allow for quick recognition. Network devices provide transport for the data that needs to be transferred between end-user devices. Network devices provide extension of cable connections, concentration of connections, conversion of data formats, and management of data transfers. Examples of devices that perform these functions are repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, and routers. All of the network devices mentioned here are covered in depth later in the course. For now, a brief overview of networking devices will be provided. A repeater is a network device used to regenerate a signal. Repeaters regenerate analog or digital signals distorted by transmission loss due to attenuation. A repeater does not perform intelligent routing like a bridge or router. Hubs concentrate connections. In other words, they take a group of hosts and allow the network to see them as a single unit. This is done passively, without any other effect on the data transmission. Active hubs not only concentrate hosts, but they also regenerate signals. Bridges convert network transmission data formats as well as perform basic data transmission management. 6 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

7 Bridges, as the name implies, provide connections between LANs. Not only do bridges connect LANs, but they also perform a check on the data to determine whether it should cross the bridge or not. This makes each part of the network more efficient. Workgroup switches add more intelligence to data transfer management. Not only can they determine whether data should remain on a LAN or not, but they can transfer the data only to the connection that needs that data. Another difference between a bridge and switch is that a switch does not convert data transmission formats. Routers have all the capabilities listed above. Routers can regenerate signals, concentrate multiple connections, convert data transmission formats, and manage data transfers. They can also connect to a WAN, which allows them to connect LANs that are separated by great distances. None of the other devices can provide this type of connection. Activity Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 7

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17 2.1 Networking Terminology Network topology Chapter Two Introduction to Networking Network topology defines the structure of the network. One part of the topology definition is the physical topology, which is the actual layout of the wire or media. The other part is the logical topology, which defines how the media is accessed by the hosts for sending data. The physical topologies that are commonly used are as follows: A bus topology uses a single backbone cable that is terminated at both ends. All the hosts connect directly to this backbone. A ring topology connects one host to the next and the last host to the first. This creates a physical ring of cable. A star topology connects all cables to a central point of concentration. An extended star topology links individual stars together by connecting the hubs and/or switches. This topology can extend the scope and coverage of the network. A hierarchical topology is similar to an extended star. However, instead of linking the hubs and/or switches together, the system is linked to a computer that controls the traffic on the topology. A mesh topology is implemented to provide as much protection as possible from interruption of service. The use of a mesh topology in the networked control systems of a nuclear power plant would be an excellent example. As seen in the graphic, each host has its own connections to all other hosts. Although the Internet has multiple paths to any one location, it does not adopt the full mesh topology. The logical topology of a network is how the hosts communicate across the medium. The two most common types of logical topologies are broadcast and token passing. Broadcast topology simply means that each host sends its data to all other hosts on the network medium. There is no order that the stations must follow to use the network. It is first come, first serve. Ethernet works this way as will be explained later in the course. The second logical topology is token passing. Token passing controls network access by passing an electronic token sequentially to each host. When a host receives the token, that host can send data on the network. If the host has no data to send, it passes the token to the next host and the process repeats Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 17

18 itself. Two examples of networks that use token passing are Token Ring and Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). A variation of Token Ring and FDDI is Arcnet. Arcnet is token passing on a bus topology. The diagram in Figure shows many different topologies connected by network devices. It shows a network of moderate complexity that is typical of a school or a small business. It has many symbols, and it depicts many networking concepts that will take time to learn. 2.1 Networking Terminology Network protocols Protocol suites are collections of protocols that enable network communication from one host through the network to another host. A protocol is a formal description of a set of rules and conventions that govern a particular aspect of how devices on a network communicate. Protocols determine the format, timing, sequencing, and error control in data communication. Without protocols, the computer cannot make or rebuild the stream of incoming bits from another computer into the original format. 18 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

19 Protocols control all aspects of data communication, which include the following: How the physical network is built How computers connect to the network How the data is formatted for transmission How that data is sent How to deal with errors These network rules are created and maintained by many different organizations and committees. Included in these groups are the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE), American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA), Electronic Industries Alliance (EIA) and the International Telecommunications Union (ITU), formerly known as the Comité Consultatif International Téléphonique et Télégraphique (CCITT). 2.1 Networking Terminology Local-area networks (LANs) LANs consist of the following components: Computers Network interface cards Peripheral devices Networking media Network devices LANs make it possible for businesses that use computer technology to locally share files and printers efficiently, and make internal communications possible. A good example of this technology is . They tie data, local communications, and computing equipment together. Some common LAN technologies are: Ethernet Token Ring FDDI Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 19

20 2.1 Networking Terminology Wide-area networks (WANs) WANs interconnect LANs, which then provide access to computers or file servers in other locations. Because WANs connect user networks over a large geographical area, they make it possible for businesses to communicate across great distances. Using WANs allows computers, printers, and other devices on a LAN to share and be shared with distant locations. WANs provide instant communications across large geographic areas. The ability to send an instant message (IM) to someone anywhere in the world provides the same communication capabilities that used to be only possible if people were in the same physical office. Collaboration software provides access to real-time information and resources that allows meetings to be held remotely, instead of in person. Wide-area networking has also created a new class of workers called telecommuters, people who never have to leave their homes to go to work. WANs are designed to do the following: Operate over a large geographically separated areas Allow users to have real-time communication capabilities with other users Provide full-time remote resources connected to local services Provide , World Wide Web, file transfer, and e-commerce services Some common WAN technologies are: Modems Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) Frame Relay US (T) and Europe (E) Carrier Series T1, E1, T3, E3 Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) 20 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

21 2.1 Networking Terminology Metropolitan-area networks (MANs) A MAN is a network that spans a metropolitan area such as a city or suburban area. A MAN usually consists of two or more LANs in a common geographic area. For example, a bank with multiple branches may utilize a MAN. Typically, a service provider is used to connect two or more LAN sites using private communication lines or optical services. A MAN can also be created using wireless bridge technology by beaming signals across public areas. 2.1 Networking Terminology Storage-area networks (SANs) A SAN is a dedicated, high-performance network used to move data between servers and storage resources. Because it is a separate, dedicated network, it avoids any traffic conflict between clients and servers. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 21

22 SAN technology allows high-speed server-to-storage, storage-to-storage, or server-to-server connectivity. This method uses a separate network infrastructure that relieves any problems associated with existing network connectivity. SANs offer the following features: Performance SANs enable concurrent access of disk or tape arrays by two or more servers at high speeds, providing enhanced system performance. Availability SANs have disaster tolerance built in, because data can be mirrored using a SAN up to 10 kilometers (km) or 6.2 miles away. Scalability Like a LAN/WAN, it can use a variety of technologies. This allows easy relocation of backup data, operations, file migration, and data replication between systems. 2.1 Networking Terminology Virtual private network (VPN) A VPN is a private network that is constructed within a public network infrastructure such as the global Internet. Using VPN, a telecommuter can access the network of the company headquarters through the Internet by building a secure tunnel between the telecommuter s PC and a VPN router in the headquarters. 2.1 Networking Terminology Benefits of VPNs Cisco products support the latest in VPN technology. A VPN is a service that offers secure, reliable connectivity over a shared public network infrastructure such as the Internet. VPNs maintain the same security and management policies as a private network. They are the most cost-effective method of establishing a point-to-point connection between remote users and an enterprise customer's network. 22 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

23 The following are the three main types of VPNs: Access VPNs Access VPNs provide remote access to a mobile worker and small office/home office (SOHO) to the headquarters of the Intranet or Extranet over a shared infrastructure. Access VPNs use analog, dialup, ISDN, digital subscriber line (DSL), mobile IP, and cable technologies to securely connect mobile users, telecommuters, and branch offices. Intranet VPNs Intranet VPNs link regional and remote offices to the headquarters of the internal network over a shared infrastructure using dedicated connections. Intranet VPNs differ from Extranet VPNs in that they allow access only to the employees of the enterprise. Extranet VPNs Extranet VPNs link business partners to the headquarters of the network over a shared infrastructure using dedicated connections. Extranet VPNs differ from Intranet VPNs in that they allow access to users outside the enterprise. 2.1 Networking Terminology Intranets and extranets One common configuration of a LAN is an Intranet. Intranet Web servers differ from public Web servers in that the public must have the proper permissions and passwords to access the Intranet of an organization. Intranets are designed to permit access by users who have access privileges to the internal LAN of the organization. Within an Intranet, Web servers are installed in the network. Browser technology is used as the common front end to access information such as financial data or graphical, text-based data stored on those servers. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 23

24 2.2 Bandwidth Importance of bandwidth Extranets refer to applications and services that are Intranet based, and use extended, secure access to external users or enterprises. This access is usually accomplished through passwords, user IDs, and other application-level security. Therefore, an Extranet is the extension of two or more Intranet strategies with a secure interaction between participant enterprises and their respective intranets. Bandwidth is defined as the amount of information that can flow through a network connection in a given period of time. It is essential to understand the concept of bandwidth when studying networking for the following four reasons: 1. Bandwidth is finite.. In other words, regardless of the media used to build the network, there are limits on the capacity of that network to carry information. Bandwidth is limited by the laws of physics and by the technologies used to place information on the media. For example, the bandwidth of a conventional modem is limited to about 56 kbps by both the physical properties of twisted-pair phone wires and by modem technology. However, the technologies employed by DSL also use the same twisted-pair phone wires, yet DSL provides much greater bandwidth than is available with conventional modems. So, even the limits imposed by the laws of physics are sometimes difficult to define. Optical fiber has the physical potential to provide virtually limitless bandwidth. Even so, the bandwidth of optical fiber cannot be fully realized until technologies are developed to take full advantage of its potential. 2. Bandwidth is not free.. It is possible to buy equipment for a local-area network (LAN) that will provide nearly unlimited bandwidth over a long period of time. For wide-area network (WAN) connections, it is almost always necessary to buy bandwidth from a service provider. In either case, an understanding of bandwidth and changes in demand for bandwidth over a given time can save an individual or a business a significant amount of money. A network manager needs to make the right decisions about the kinds of equipment and services to buy. 3. Bandwidth is a key factor in analyzing network performance, designing new networks, and understanding the Internet.. A networking professional must understand the tremendous impact of bandwidth and throughput on network performance and design. Information flows as a string of bits from computer to computer throughout the world. These bits represent massive amounts of information flowing back and forth across the globe in seconds or less. In a sense, it may be appropriate to say that the Internet is bandwidth. 4. The demand for bandwidth is ever increasing.. As soon as new network technologies and infrastructures are built to provide greater bandwidth, new applications are created to take advantage of the greater capacity. The delivery over the network of rich media content, including streaming video and audio, requires tremendous amounts of bandwidth. IP telephony systems are now commonly installed in place of traditional voice 24 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

25 systems, which further adds to the need for bandwidth. The successful networking professional must anticipate the need for increased bandwidth and act accordingly. 2.2 Bandwidth Analogies Bandwidth has been defined as the amount of information that can flow through a network in a given time. The idea that information flows suggests two analogies that may make it easier to visualize bandwidth in a network. Since both water and traffic are said to flow, consider the following analogies: 1. Bandwidth is like the width of a pipe.. A network of pipes brings fresh water to homes and businesses and carries waste water away. This water network is made up of pipes of different diameters. The main water pipes of a city may be two meters in diameter, while the pipe to a kitchen faucet may have a diameter of only two centimeters. The width of the pipe determines the water-carrying capacity of the pipe. Therefore, the water is like the data, and the pipe width is like the bandwidth. Many networking experts say that they need to put in bigger pipes when they wish to add more information-carrying capacity. 2. Bandwidth is like the number of lanes on a highway.. A network of roads serves every city or town. Large highways with many traffic lanes are joined by smaller roads with fewer traffic lanes. These roads lead to even smaller, narrower roads, which eventually go to the driveways of homes and businesses. When very few automobiles use the highway system, each vehicle is able to move freely. When more traffic is added, each vehicle Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 25

26 moves more slowly. This is especially true on roads with fewer lanes for the cars to occupy. Eventually, as even more traffic enters the highway system, even multi-lane highways become congested and slow. A data network is much like the highway system. The data packets are comparable to automobiles, and the bandwidth is comparable to the number of lanes on the highway. When a data network is viewed as a system of highways, it is easy to see how low bandwidth connections can cause traffic to become congested all over the network. 2.2 Bandwidth Measurement In digital systems, the basic unit of bandwidth is bits per second (bps). Bandwidth is the measure of how much information, or bits, can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time, or seconds. Although bandwidth can be described in bits per second, usually some multiple of bits per second is used. In other words, network bandwidth is typically described as thousands of bits per second (kbps), millions of bits per second (Mbps), and billions of bits per second (Gbps) and trillions of bits per second (Tbps). Although the terms bandwidth and speed are often used interchangeably, they are not exactly the same thing. One may say, for example, that a T3 connection at 45Mbps operates at a higher speed than a T1 connection at 1.544Mbps. However, if only a small amount of their data-carrying capacity is being used, each of these connection types will carry data at roughly the same speed. For example, a small amount of water will flow at the same rate through a small pipe as through a large pipe. Therefore, it is usually more accurate to say that a T3 connection has greater bandwidth than a T1 connection. This is because the T3 connection is able to carry more information in the same period of time, not because it has a higher speed. 2.2 Bandwidth Limitations Bandwidth varies depending upon the type of media as well as the LAN and WAN technologies used. The physics of the media account for some of the difference. Signals travel through twisted-pair copper wire, coaxial cable, optical fiber, and air. The physical differences in the ways signals travel result in fundamental limitations on the information-carrying capacity of a given medium. However, the actual bandwidth of a network is determined by a combination of the physical media and the technologies chosen for signaling and detecting network signals. For example, current understanding of the physics of unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) copper cable puts the theoretical bandwidth limit at over one gigabit per second (Gbps). However, in actual practice, the bandwidth is determined by the use of 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, or 1000BASE-TX Ethernet. In other words, the actual bandwidth is determined by the signaling methods, network interface cards (NICs), and other items of network equipment that are chosen. Therefore, the bandwidth is not determined solely by the limitations of the medium. 26 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

27 Figure shows some common networking media types along with the limits on distance and bandwidth when using the indicated networking technology. Figure summarizes common WAN services and the bandwidth associated with each service. 2.2 Bandwidth Throughput Bandwidth is the measure of the amount of information that can move through the network in a given period of time. Therefore, the amount of available bandwidth is a critical part of the specification of the network. A typical LAN might be built to provide 100 Mbps to every desktop workstation, but this does not mean that each user is actually able to move one hundred megabits of data through the network for every second of use. This would be true only under the most ideal circumstances. The concept of throughput can help explain why this is so. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 27

28 Throughput refers to actual measured bandwidth, at a specific time of day, using specific Internet routes, and while a specific set of data is transmitted on the network. Unfortunately, for many reasons, throughput is often far less than the maximum possible digital bandwidth of the medium that is being used. The following are some of the factors that determine throughput: Internetworking devices Type of data being transferred Network topology Number of users on the network User computer Server computer Power conditions The theoretical bandwidth of a network is an important consideration in network design, because the network bandwidth will never be greater than the limits imposed by the chosen media and networking technologies. However, it is just as important for a network designer and administrator to consider the factors that may affect actual throughput. By measuring throughput on a regular basis, a network administrator will be aware of changes in network performance and changes in the needs of network users. The network can then be adjusted accordingly. 2.2 Bandwidth Data transfer calculation Network designers and administrators are often called upon to make decisions regarding bandwidth. One decision might be whether to increase the size of the WAN connection to accommodate a new database. Another decision might be whether the current LAN backbone is of sufficient bandwidth for a streamingvideo training program. The answers to problems like these are not always easy to find, but one place to start is with a simple data transfer calculation. Using the formula transfer time = size of file / bandwidth (T=S/BW) allows a network administrator to estimate several of the important components of network performance. If the typical file size for a given application is known, dividing the file size by the network bandwidth yields an estimate of the fastest time that the file can be transferred. Two important points should be considered when doing this calculation. 28 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

29 1. The result is an estimate only, because the file size does not include any overhead added by encapsulation. 2. The result is likely to be a best-case transfer time, because available bandwidth is almost never at the theoretical maximum for the network type. A more accurate estimate can be attained if throughput is substituted for bandwidth in the equation. Although the data transfer calculation is quite simple, one must be careful to use the same units throughout the equation. In other words, if the bandwidth is measured in megabits per second (Mbps), the file size must be in megabits (Mb), not megabytes (MB). Since file sizes are typically given in megabytes, it may be necessary to multiply the number of megabytes by eight to convert to megabits. Try to answer the following question, using the formula T=S/BW. Be sure to convert units of measurement as necessary. Would it take less time to send the contents of a floppy disk full of data (1.44 MB) over an ISDN line, or to send the contents of a ten GB hard drive full of data over an OC-48 line? 2.2 Bandwidth Digital versus analog Radio, television, and telephone transmissions have, until recently, been sent through the air and over wires using electromagnetic waves. These waves are called analog because they have the same shapes as the light and sound waves produced by the transmitters. As light and sound waves change size and shape, the electrical signal that carries the transmission changes proportionately. In other words, the electromagnetic waves are analogous to the light and sound waves. Analog bandwidth is measured by how much of the electromagnetic spectrum is occupied by each signal. The basic unit of analog bandwidth is hertz (Hz), or cycles per second. Typically, multiples of this basic unit of analog bandwidth are used, just as with digital bandwidth. Units of measurement that are commonly seen are kilohertz (KHz), megahertz (MHz), and gigahertz (GHz). These are the units used to describe the bandwidths of cordless telephones, which usually operate at either 900 MHz or 2.4 GHz. These are also the units used to describe the bandwidths of a and b wireless networks, which operate at 5 GHz and 2.4 GHz. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 29

30 While analog signals are capable of carrying a variety of information, they have some significant disadvantages in comparison to digital transmissions. The analog video signal that requires a wide frequency range for transmission cannot be squeezed into a smaller band. Therefore, if the necessary analog bandwidth is not available, the signal cannot be sent. In digital signaling all information is sent as bits, regardless of the kind of information it is. Voice, video, and data all become streams of bits when they are prepared for transmission over digital media. This type of transmission gives digital bandwidth an important advantage over analog bandwidth. Unlimited amounts of information can be sent over the smallest or lowest bandwidth digital channel. Regardless of how long it takes for the digital information to arrive at its destination and be reassembled, it can be viewed, listened to, read, or processed in its original form. It is important to understand the differences and similarities between digital and analog bandwidth. Both types of bandwidth are regularly encountered in the field of information technology. However, because this course is concerned primarily with digital networking, the term bandwidth will refer to digital bandwidth. 2.3 Networking Models Using layers to analyze problems in a flow of materials The concept of layers is used to describe communication from one computer to another. Figure shows a set of questions that are related to flow, which is defined as the motion through a system of either physical or logical objects. These questions show how the concept of layers helps describe the details of the flow process. This process could be any kind of flow, from the flow of traffic on a highway system to the flow of data through a network. Figure 30 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

31 shows several examples of flow and ways that the flow process can be broken down into details or layers. A conversation between two people provides a good opportunity to use a layered approach to analyze information flow. In a conversation, each person wishing to communicate begins by creating an idea. Then a decision is made on how to properly communicate the idea. For example, a person could decide to speak, sing or shout, and what language to use. Finally the idea is delivered. For example, the person creates the sound which carries the message. This process can be broken into separate layers that may be applied to all conversations. The top layer is the idea that will be communicated. The middle layer is the decision on how the idea is to be communicated. The bottom layer is the creation of sound to carry the communication. The same method of layering explains how a computer network distributes information from a source to a destination. When computers send information through a network, all communications originate at a source then travel to a destination. The information that travels on a network is generally referred to as data or a packet. A packet is a logically grouped unit of information that moves between computer systems. As the data passes between layers, each layer adds additional information that enables effective communication with the corresponding layer on the other computer. The OSI and TCP/IP models have layers that explain how data is communicated from one computer to another. The models differ in the number and function of the layers. However, each model can be used to help describe and provide details about the flow of information from a source to a destination. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 31

32 2.3 Networking Models Using layers to describe data communication In order for data packets to travel from a source to a destination on a network, it is important that all the devices on the network speak the same language or protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that make communication on a network more efficient. For example, while flying an airplane, pilots obey very specific rules for communication with other airplanes and with air traffic control. A data communications protocol is a set of rules or an agreement that determines the format and transmission of data. Layer 4 on the source computer communicates with Layer 4 on the destination computer. The rules and conventions used for this layer are known as Layer 4 protocols. It is important to remember that protocols prepare data in a linear fashion. A protocol in one layer performs a certain set of operations on data as it prepares the data to be sent over the network. The data is then passed to the next layer where another protocol performs a different set of operations. Once the packet has been sent to the destination, the protocols undo the construction of the packet that was done on the source side. This is done in reverse order. The protocols for each layer on the destination return the information to its original form, so the application can properly read the data. 2.3 Networking Models OSI model The early development of networks was disorganized in many ways. The early 1980s saw tremendous increases in the number and size of networks. As companies realized the advantages of using networking technology, networks were added or expanded almost as rapidly as new network technologies were introduced. By the mid-1980s, these companies began to experience problems from the rapid expansion. Just as people who do not speak the same language have difficulty communicating with each other, it was difficult for networks that used different specifications and implementations to exchange information. The same problem occurred with the companies that developed private or proprietary networking technologies. Proprietary means that one or a small group of companies controls all usage of the technology. 32 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

33 Networking technologies strictly following proprietary rules could not communicate with technologies that followed different proprietary rules. To address the problem of network incompatibility, the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) researched networking models like Digital Equipment Corporation net (DECnet), Systems Network Architecture (SNA), and TCP/IP in order to find a generally applicable set of rules for all networks. Using this research, the ISO created a network model that helps vendors create networks that are compatible with other networks. The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model released in 1984 was the descriptive network model that the ISO created. It provided vendors with a set of standards that ensured greater compatibility and interoperability among various network technologies produced by companies around the world. The OSI reference model has become the primary model for network communications. Although there are other models in existence, most network vendors relate their products to the OSI reference model. This is especially true when they want to educate users on the use of their products. It is considered the best tool available for teaching people about sending and receiving data on a network. Activity Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 33

34 2.3 Networking Models OSI layers The OSI reference model is a framework that is used to understand how information travels throughout a network. The OSI reference model explains how packets travel through the various layers to another device on a network, even if the sender and destination have different types of network media. In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each of which illustrates a particular network function Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

35 Dividing the network into seven layers provides the following advantages: It breaks network communication into smaller, more manageable parts. It standardizes network components to allow multiple vendor development and support. It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each other. It prevents changes in one layer from affecting other layers. It divides network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to understand. 2.3 Networking Models Peer-to-peer communications In order for data to travel from the source to the destination, each layer of the OSI model at the source must communicate with its peer layer at the destination. This form of communication is referred to as peerto-peer. During this process, the protocols of each layer exchange information, called protocol data units (PDUs). Each layer of communication on the source computer communicates with a layer-specific PDU, and with its peer layer on the destination computer as illustrated in Figure. Data packets on a network originate at a source and then travel to a destination. Each layer depends on the service function of the OSI layer below it. To provide this service, the lower layer uses encapsulation to put the PDU from the upper layer into its data field; then it adds whatever headers and trailers the layer needs to perform its function. Next, as the data moves down through the layers of the OSI model, additional headers and trailers are added. After Layers 7, 6, and 5 have added their information, Layer 4 adds more information. This grouping of data, the Layer 4 PDU, is called a segment. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 35

36 The network layer provides a service to the transport layer, and the transport layer presents data to the internetwork subsystem. The network layer has the task of moving the data through the internetwork. It accomplishes this task by encapsulating the data and attaching a header creating a packet (the Layer 3 PDU). The header contains information required to complete the transfer, such as source and destination logical addresses. The data link layer provides a service to the network layer. It encapsulates the network layer information in a frame (the Layer 2 PDU). The frame header contains information (for example, physical addresses) required to complete the data link functions. The data link layer provides a service to the network layer by encapsulating the network layer information in a frame. The physical layer also provides a service to the data link layer. The physical layer encodes the data link frame into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmission on the medium (usually a wire) at Layer Networking Models TCP/IP model The historical and technical standard of the Internet is the TCP/IP model. The U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) created the TCP/IP reference model, because it wanted to design a network that could survive any conditions, including a nuclear war. In a world connected by different types of communication media such as copper wires, microwaves, optical fibers and satellite links, the DoD wanted transmission of packets every time and under any conditions. This very difficult design problem brought about the creation of the TCP/IP model. Unlike the proprietary networking technologies mentioned earlier, TCP/IP was developed as an open standard. This meant that anyone was free to use TCP/IP. This helped speed up the development of TCP/IP as a standard. The TCP/IP model has the following four layers: 36 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

37 Application layer Transport layer Internet layer Network access layer Although some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the OSI model, the layers of the two models do not correspond exactly. Most notably, the application layer has different functions in each model. The designers of TCP/IP felt that the application layer should include the OSI session and presentation layer details. They created an application layer that handles issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control. The transport layer deals with the quality of service issues of reliability, flow control, and error correction. One of its protocols, the transmission control protocol (TCP), provides excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-flowing, low-error network communications. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. It maintains a dialogue between source and destination while packaging application layer information into units called segments. Connection-oriented does not mean that a circuit exists between the communicating computers. It does mean that Layer 4 segments travel back and forth between two hosts to acknowledge the connection exists logically for some period. The purpose of the Internet layer is to divide TCP segments into packets and send them from any network. The packets arrive at the destination network independent of the path they took to get there. The specific protocol that governs this layer is called the Internet Protocol (IP). Best path determination and packet switching occur at this layer. The relationship between IP and TCP is an important one. IP can be thought to point the way for the packets, while TCP provides a reliable transport. The name of the network access layer is very broad and somewhat confusing. It is also known as the host-to-network layer. This layer is concerned with all of the components, both physical and logical, that are required to make a physical link. It includes the networking technology details, including all the details in the OSI physical and data link layers. Figure illustrates some of the common protocols specified by the TCP/IP reference model layers. Some of the most commonly used application layer protocols include the following: Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 37

38 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) Domain Name System (DNS) Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) The common transport layer protocols include: Transport Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP) The primary protocol of the Internet layer is: Internet Protocol (IP) The network access layer refers to any particular technology used on a specific network. Regardless of which network application services are provided and which transport protocol is used, there is only one Internet protocol, IP. This is a deliberate design decision. IP serves as a universal protocol that allows any computer anywhere to communicate at any time. A comparison of the OSI model and the TCP/IP models will point out some similarities and differences. Similarities include: Both have layers. Both have application layers, though they include very different services. Both have comparable transport and network layers. Both models need to be known by networking professionals. Both assume packets are switched. This means that individual packets may take different paths to reach the same destination. This is contrasted with circuit-switched networks where all the packets take the same path. Differences include: TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer. TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into the network access layer. TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers. 38 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

39 TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, networks are not usually built on the OSI protocol, even though the OSI model is used as a guide. Although TCP/IP protocols are the standards with which the Internet has grown, this curriculum will use the OSI model for the following reasons: It is a generic, protocol-independent standard. It has more details, which make it more helpful for teaching and learning. It has more details, which can be helpful when troubleshooting. Networking professionals differ in their opinions on which model to use. Due to the nature of the industry it is necessary to become familiar with both. Both the OSI and TCP/IP models will be referred to throughout the curriculum. The focus will be on the following: TCP as an OSI Layer 4 protocol IP as an OSI Layer 3 protocol Ethernet as a Layer 2 and Layer 1 technology Remember that there is a difference between a model and an actual protocol that is used in networking. The OSI model will be used to describe TCP/IP protocols. Lab Activity Activity Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 39

40 Lab OSI Model and TCP/IP Model Objective Describe the four layers of the TCP/IP model. Relate the seven layers of the OSI model to the four layers of the TCP/IP model. Name the primary TCP/IP protocols and utilities that operate at each layer. Background This lab will help to develop a better understanding of the seven layers of the OSI model. Specifically as they relate to the most popular functioning networking model in existence, the TCP/IP model. The Internet is based on TCP/IP. TCP/IP has become the standard language of networking. However, the seven layers of the OSI model are the ones most commonly used to describe and compare networking software and hardware from various vendors. It is very important to know both models and be able to relate or map the layers of one to the other. An understanding of the TCP/IP model and the protocols and utilities that operate at each layer is essential when troubleshooting. Steps 1. Use the table below to compare the OSI layers with the TCP/IP protocol stack. In column two, indicate the proper name for each of the seven layers of the OSI model corresponding to the layer number. List the TCP/IP layer number and its correct name in the next two columns. Also list the term used for the encapsulation units, the related TCP/IP protocols and utilities that operate at each TCP/IP layer. More than one OSI layer will be related to certain TCP/IP layers. 40 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

41 2.3 Networking Models Detailed encapsulation process All communications on a network originate at a source, and are sent to a destination. The information sent on a network is referred to as data or data packets. If one computer (host A) wants to send data to another computer (host B), the data must first be packaged through a process called encapsulation. Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary protocol information before network transit. Therefore, as the data packet moves down through the layers of the OSI model, it receives headers, trailers, and other information. To see how encapsulation occurs, examine the manner in which data travels through the layers as illustrated in Figure. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 41

42 Once the data is sent from the source, it travels through the application layer down through the other layers. The packaging and flow of the data that is exchanged goes through changes as the layers perform their services for end users. As illustrated in Figure, networks must perform the following five conversion steps in order to encapsulate data: 1. Build the data.. As a user sends an message, its alphanumeric characters are converted to data that can travel across the internetwork. 2. Package the data for end-to-end transport.. The data is packaged for internetwork transport. By using segments, the transport function ensures that the message hosts at both ends of the system can reliably communicate. 3. Add the network IP address to the header.. The data is put into a packet or datagram that contains a packet header with source and destination logical addresses. These addresses help network devices send the packets across the network along a chosen path. 4. Add the data link layer header and trailer.. Each network device must put the packet into a frame. The frame allows connection to the next directly-connected network device on the link. Each device in the chosen network path requires framing in order for it to connect to the next device. 5. Convert to bits for transmission.. The frame must be converted into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmission on the medium. A clocking function enables the devices to distinguish these bits as they travel across the medium. The medium on the physical internetwork can vary along the path used. For example, the message can originate on a LAN, cross a campus backbone, and go out a WAN link until it reaches its destination on another remote LAN. Lab Activity Activity 42 Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan

43 Lab OSI Model Characteristics and Devices Objective Name the seven layers of the OSI model, in order. Use a mnemonic. Describe the characteristics, functions and keywords relating to each layer. Describe the packaging units used to encapsulate each layer. Name the physical devices or components that operate at each layer. Background This lab will help to develop a better understanding of the seven layers of the OSI model. Specifically as they relate to the most popular functioning networking model in existence, the TCP/IP model. The Internet is based on TCP/IP. TCP/IP has become the standard language of networking. However, the seven layers of the OSI model are the ones most commonly used to describe and compare networking software and hardware from various vendors. It is very important to know both models and be able to relate or map the layers of one to the other. An understanding of the TCP/IP model and the protocols and utilities that operate at each layer is essential when troubleshooting. Steps 1. List the seven layers of the OSI model from the top to the bottom. Give a mnemonic word for each layer that can help you remember it. Then list the keywords and phrases that describe the characteristics and function of each. Cisco Networking Academy Kabul University Afghanistan 43

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