CS 143A - Principles of Operating Systems

Transcription

1 CS 143A - Principles of Operating Systems Operating Systems - Review of content from midterm to final Prof. Nalini Venkatasubramanian nalini@ics.uci.edu

2 Deadlocks System Model Resource allocation graph, claim graph (for avoidance) Deadlock Characterization Conditions for deadlock - mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption, circular wait. Methods for handling deadlocks Deadlock Prevention Deadlock Avoidance Deadlock Detection Recovery from Deadlock Combined Approach to Deadlock Handling 2

3 Deadlock Prevention If any one of the conditions for deadlock (with reusable resources) is denied, deadlock is impossible. Restrain ways in which requests can be made Mutual Exclusion - cannot deny (important) Hold and Wait - guarantee that when a process requests a resource, it does not hold other resources. No Preemption If a process that is holding some resources requests another resource that cannot be immediately allocated to it, the process releases the resources currently being held. Circular Wait Impose a total ordering of all resource types. 3

4 Deadlock Avoidance Requires that the system has some additional a priori information available. Simplest and most useful model requires that each process declare the maximum number of resources of each type that it may need. Computation of Safe State When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation leaves the system in a safe state. Sequence <P1, P2, Pn> is safe, if for each Pi, the resources that Pi can still request can be satisfied by currently available resources + resources held by Pj with j<i. Safe state - no deadlocks, unsafe state - possibility of deadlocks Avoidance - system will never reach unsafe state. 4

5 Algorithms for Deadlock Avoidance Resource allocation graph algorithm only one instance of each resource type Banker s algorithm Used for multiple instances of each resource type. Data structures required Available, Max, Allocation, Need Safety algorithm resource request algorithm for a process. 5

6 Memory Management Main Memory is an array of addressable words or bytes that is quickly accessible. Main Memory is volatile. OS is responsible for: Allocate and deallocate memory to processes. Managing multiple processes within memory - keep track of which parts of memory are used by which processes. Manage the sharing of memory between processes. Determining which processes to load when memory becomes available. 6

7 Binding of instructions and data to memory Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses can happen at three different stages. Compile time, Load time, Execution time Other techniques for better memory utilization Dynamic Loading - Routine is not loaded until it is called. Dynamic Linking - Linking postponed until execution time Overlays - Keep in memory only those instructions and data that are needed at any given time Swapping - A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a backing store and then brought back into memory for continued execution MMU - Memory Management Unit Hardware device that maps virtual to physical address. 7

8 Contiguous Allocation Divides Main memory usually into two partitions Resident Operating System, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector and User processes held in high memory. Single partition allocation Relocation register scheme used to protect user processes from each other, and from changing OS code and data Multiple partition allocation holes of various sizes are scattered throughout memory. When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to accommodate it. Variation: Fixed partition allocation 8

9 Dynamic Storage Allocation Problem How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes. First-fit Best-fit Worst-fit Fragmentation External fragmentation total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous. Internal fragmentation allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used. Reduce external fragmentation by compaction 9

10 Paging Logical address space of a process can be noncontiguous; process is allocated physical memory wherever the latter is available. Divide physical memory into fixed size blocks called frames size is power of 2, 512 bytes - 8K Divide logical memory into same size blocks called pages. Keep track of all free frames. To run a program of size n pages, find n free frames and load program. Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses. Note:: Internal Fragmentation possible!! 10

11 Page Table Implementation Page table is kept in main memory Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table. Page-table length register (PTLR) indicates the size of page table. Every data/instruction access requires 2 memory accesses. One for page table, one for data/instruction Two-memory access problem solved by use of special fastlookup hardware cache (i.e. cache page table in registers) associative registers or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs) 11

12 Paging Methods Multilevel Paging Each level is a separate table in memory converting a logical address to a physical one may take 4 or more memory accesses. Caching can help performance remain reasonable. Inverted Page Tables One entry for each real page of memory. Entry consists of virtual address of page in real memory with information about process that owns page. Shared Pages Code and data can be shared among processes. Reentrant (non self-modifying) code can be shared. Map them into pages with common page frame mappings 12

13 Segmentation Memory Management Scheme that supports user view of memory. A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a logical unit such as main program, procedure, function local variables, global variables,common block stack, symbol table, arrays Protect each entity independently Allow each segment to grow independently Share each segment independently 13

14 Segmented Paged Memory Segment-table entry contains not the base address of the segment, but the base address of a page table for this segment. Overcomes external fragmentation problem of segmented memory. Paging also makes allocation simpler; time to search for a suitable segment (using best-fit etc.) reduced. Introduces some internal fragmentation and table space overhead. Multics - single level page table IBM OS/2 - OS on top of Intel 386 uses a two level paging scheme 14

15 Virtual Memory Virtual Memory Separation of user logical memory from physical memory. Only PART of the program needs to be in memory for execution. Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical address space. Need to allow pages to be swapped in and out. Virtual Memory can be implemented via Paging Segmentation 15

16 Demand Paging Bring a page into memory only when it is needed. Less I/O needed Less Memory needed Faster response More users The first reference to a page will trap to OS with a page fault. OS looks at another table to decide Invalid reference - abort Just not in memory. 16

17 Page Replacement Prevent over-allocation of memory by modifying page fault service routine to include page replacement. Use modify(dirty) bit to reduce overhead of page transfers - only modified pages are written to disk. Page replacement large virtual memory can be provided on a smaller physical memory. 17

18 Page Replacement Strategies The Principle of Optimality Replace the page that will not be used again the farthest time into the future. Random Page Replacement Choose a page randomly FIFO - First in First Out Replace the page that has been in memory the longest. LRU - Least Recently Used Replace the page that has not been used for the longest time. LRU Approximation Algorithms - reference bit, second-chance etc. LFU/MFU - Least/Most Frequently Used Replace the page that is used least/most often. 18

19 Allocation of Frames Single user case is simple User is allocated any free frame Problem: Demand paging + multiprogramming Each process needs minimum number of pages based on instruction set architecture. Two major allocation schemes: Fixed allocation - (1) equal allocation (2) Proportional allocation. Priority allocation - May want to give high priority process more memory than low priority process. 19

20 Thrashing If a process does not have enough pages, the page-fault rate is very high. This leads to: low CPU utilization. OS thinks that it needs to increase the degree of multiprogramming Another process is added to the system. System throughput plunges... Thrashing A process is busy swapping pages in and out. In other words, a process is spending more time paging than executing. 20

21 Working Set Model Δ working-set window a fixed number of page references, e.g. 10,000 instructions WSSj (working set size of process Pj) - total number of pages referenced in the most recent Δ (varies in time) If Δ too small, will not encompass entire locality. If Δ too large, will encompass several localities. If Δ =, will encompass entire program. D = WSSj total demand frames If D > m (number of available frames) thrashing Policy: If D > m, then suspend one of the processes. 21

22 File System Management File is a collection of related information defined by creator - represents programs and data. OS is responsible for File creation and deletion Directory creation and deletion Supporting primitives for file/directory manipulation. Mapping files to disks (secondary storage). Backup files on archival media (tapes). 22

23 File Concept Contiguous logical address space OS abstracts from the physical properties of its storage device to define a logical storage unit called file. OS maps files to physical devices. Types Data, Program, Documents File Attributes Name, type, location, size, protection etc. File Operations Create, read, write, reposition, delete etc.. 23

24 Directory Structure Number of files on a system can be extensive Hold information about files within partitions called directories. Device Directory: A collection of nodes containing information about all files on a partition. Both the directory structure and files reside on disk. Backups of these two structures are kept on tapes. Operations on a directory create a file, delete a file, search for a file, list directory etc. 24

25 Logical Directory Organization Goals - Efficiency, Naming, grouping Single Level Directories Single level for all users, naming and grouping problem Two Level Directories first level - user directories, second level - user files Tree Structured Directories arbitrary depth of directories, leaf nodes are files Acyclic Graph Directories allows sharing, implementation by links or shared files General Graph Directories allow cycles - must be careful during traversal and deletion. 25

26 File Protection - Access lists and groups Associate each file/directory with access list Problem - length of access list.. Solution - condensed version of list Mode of access: read, write, execute Three classes of users owner access - user who created the file groups access - set of users who are sharing the file and need similar access public access - all other users In UNIX, 3 fields of length 3 bits are used. Fields are user, group, others(u,g,o), Bits are read, write, execute (r,w,x). E.g. chmod go+rw file, chmod 761 game 26

27 File-System Implementation File System Structure File System resides on secondary storage (disks).to improve I/ O efficiency, I/O transfers between memory and disk are performed in blocks. Read/Write/Modify/Access each block on disk. File System Mounting - File System must be mounted before it can be available to process on the system. The OS is given the name of the device and the mount point. Allocation Methods Contiguous Linked Indexed 27

28 Allocation of Disk Space Low level access methods depend upon the disk allocation scheme used to store file data Contiguous Allocation Each file occupies a set of contiguous blocks on the disk. Dynamic storage allocation problem. Files cannot grow. Linked List Allocation Each file is a linked list of disk blocks. Blocks may be scattered anywhere on the disk. Not suited for random access. Variation - FILE ALLOCATION TABLE (FAT) mechanisms Indexed Allocation Brings all pointers together into the index block. Need index table. Can link blocks of indexes to form multilevel indexes. 28